---
title: testudo — school dictionary · trees and pragmatics
description: «testudo» in the school dictionary: A testudo was a Roman army formation: soldiers stood close together and held their shields in front of them and over their heads, like a tortoise's shell, to protect themselves from arrows and stones. Every meaning for a pupil with its dependency tree and pragmati
---

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# testudo

<!-- .vintro -->
**Who acts:** testudo, soldiers, legionaries, shields, class, arrows · **What happens:** be, stand, hold, protect, form, make · **To what, where:** Roman army formation, shields, front, soldiers, scientific name, testudo

<!-- .vabout -->
«testudo» in the school dictionary: its 2 meanings for a pupil and its 6 examples, every sentence parsed by Mova itself — its syntax tree, a dependency tree in the style of Universal Dependencies, and its pragmatics clause by clause. The word in the dictionary, with its sense in the lessons: [testudo in the school dictionary](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/dictionaries/school/w/testudo.md).

## Meaning 1 {#m1}

<!-- .note -->
Usage: history — kept apart, not parsed.

<!-- .ven lang=en -->
A testudo was a Roman army formation: soldiers stood close together and held their shields in front of them and over their heads, like a tortoise's shell, to protect themselves from arrows and stones.

<!-- fold The tree, 35 words -->
```conllu
# sent_id = dict:school:testudo:m1:1
# text = A testudo was a Roman army formation: soldiers stood close together and held their shields in front of them and over their heads, like a tortoise's shell, to protect themselves from arrows and stones.
1	A	a	DET	DT	Definite=Ind|PronType=Art	2	det	_	_
2	testudo	testudo	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	7	nsubj	_	_
3	was	be	AUX	VBD	Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=3|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Fin	7	cop	_	_
4	a	a	DET	DT	Definite=Ind|PronType=Art	7	det	_	_
5	Roman	roman	ADJ	JJ	Degree=Pos	7	amod	_	_
6	army	army	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	7	compound	_	_
7	formation	formation	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	0	root	_	SpaceAfter=No
8	:	:	PUNCT	:	_	10	punct	_	_
9	soldiers	soldier	NOUN	NNS	Number=Plur	10	nsubj	_	_
10	stood	stand	VERB	VBD	Mood=Ind|Number=Plur|Person=3|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Fin	7	parataxis	_	_
11	close	close	ADV	RB	Degree=Pos	12	advmod	_	_
12	together	together	ADV	RB	_	10	advmod	_	_
13	and	and	CCONJ	CC	_	14	cc	_	_
14	held	hold	VERB	VBD	Mood=Ind|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Fin	10	conj	_	_
15	their	their	PRON	PRP$	Case=Gen|Number=Plur|Person=3|Poss=Yes|PronType=Prs	16	nmod:poss	_	_
16	shields	shield	NOUN	NNS	Number=Plur	14	obj	_	_
17	in	in	ADP	IN	_	18	case	_	_
18	front	front	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	14	obl	_	_
19	of	of	ADP	IN	_	20	case	_	_
20	them	they	PRON	PRP	Case=Acc|Number=Plur|Person=3|PronType=Prs	18	nmod	_	_
21	and	and	CCONJ	CC	_	24	cc	_	_
22	over	over	ADP	IN	_	24	case	_	_
23	their	their	PRON	PRP$	Case=Gen|Number=Plur|Person=3|Poss=Yes|PronType=Prs	24	nmod:poss	_	_
24	heads	head	NOUN	NNS	Number=Plur	20	conj	_	SpaceAfter=No
25	,	,	PUNCT	,	_	30	punct	_	_
26	like	like	ADP	IN	_	30	case	_	_
27	a	a	DET	DT	Definite=Ind|PronType=Art	28	det	_	_
28	tortoise	tortoise	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	30	nmod:poss	_	SpaceAfter=No
29	's	's	PART	POS	_	28	case	_	_
30	shell	shell	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	10	obl	_	SpaceAfter=No
31	,	,	PUNCT	,	_	33	punct	_	_
32	to	to	PART	TO	_	33	mark	_	_
33	protect	protect	VERB	VB	VerbForm=Inf	10	advcl	_	_
34	themselves	themselves	PRON	PRP	Case=Acc|Number=Plur|Person=3|PronType=Prs|Reflex=Yes	33	obj	_	_
35	from	from	ADP	IN	_	36	case	_	_
36	arrows	arrow	NOUN	NNS	Number=Plur	33	obl	_	_
37	and	and	CCONJ	CC	_	38	cc	_	_
38	stones	stone	NOUN	NNS	Number=Plur	36	conj	_	SpaceAfter=No
39	.	.	PUNCT	.	_	7	punct	_	_
```

<!-- .fr -->
| # | verb | tense, mood | who | what, whom | to whom | where | when | other | roles by |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | **is a** | past | a testudo | a Roman army formation |  |  |  |  | tree rules |
| 2 | **stand** | past | soldiers |  |  |  |  | like a tortoise's shell; together *property* | vn assuming\_position-50 «NP V»: agent=Agent |
| 3 | **hold** | past | soldiers *not said here* | soldiers's shields |  | front of soldiers |  |  | vn keep-15.2 «NP V NP PP.location»: agent=Agent shield=Theme in front=Location |
| 4 | **protect** | to-infinitive | soldiers *not said here* | soldiers *= soldier* |  |  |  | from arrows and stones | vn defend-72.3 «NP V NP PP.theme»: agent=Agent themselves=Beneficiary from arrow=Theme |

<!-- .note -->
One row per clause the reader finds. «not said here»: a role filled from the clause above. «roles by»: a VerbNet class and frame when one fits the verb, else the reader's rules on the tree.

## Meaning 2 {#m2}

<!-- .note -->
Usage: science — kept apart, not parsed.

<!-- .ven lang=en -->
Testudo is the scientific name of a group of tortoises, such as the Greek tortoise and Hermann's tortoise.

<!-- fold The tree, 19 words -->
```conllu
# sent_id = dict:school:testudo:m2:1
# text = Testudo is the scientific name of a group of tortoises, such as the Greek tortoise and Hermann's tortoise.
1	Testudo	testudo	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	5	nsubj	_	_
2	is	be	AUX	VBZ	Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=3|Tense=Pres|VerbForm=Fin	5	cop	_	_
3	the	the	DET	DT	Definite=Def|PronType=Art	5	det	_	_
4	scientific	scientific	ADJ	JJ	Degree=Pos	5	amod	_	_
5	name	name	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	0	root	_	_
6	of	of	ADP	IN	_	8	case	_	_
7	a	a	DET	DT	Definite=Ind|PronType=Art	8	det	_	_
8	group	group	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	5	nmod	_	_
9	of	of	ADP	IN	_	10	case	_	_
10	tortoises	tortoise	NOUN	NNS	Number=Plur	8	nmod	_	SpaceAfter=No
11	,	,	PUNCT	,	_	16	punct	_	_
12	such	such	ADJ	JJ	Degree=Pos|ExtPos=ADP	16	case	_	_
13	as	as	ADP	IN	_	12	fixed	_	_
14	the	the	DET	DT	Definite=Def|PronType=Art	16	det	_	_
15	Greek	Greek	ADJ	JJ	Degree=Pos	16	amod	_	_
16	tortoise	tortoise	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	8	conj	_	_
17	and	and	CCONJ	CC	_	20	cc	_	_
18	Hermann	Hermann	PROPN	NNP	Number=Sing	20	nmod:poss	_	SpaceAfter=No
19	's	's	PART	POS	_	18	case	_	_
20	tortoise	tortoise	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	16	conj	_	SpaceAfter=No
21	.	.	PUNCT	.	_	5	punct	_	_
```

<!-- .fr -->
| # | verb | tense, mood | who | what, whom | to whom | where | when | other | roles by |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | **is a** | present | Testudo | the scientific name |  |  |  | of a group of tortoises and the Greek tortoise and Hermann's tortoise | tree rules |

## Example 1 {#x1}

<!-- .ven lang=en -->
The legionaries formed a testudo to protect themselves.

```conllu
# sent_id = dict:school:testudo:x1:1
# text = The legionaries formed a testudo to protect themselves.
1	The	the	DET	DT	Definite=Def|PronType=Art	2	det	_	_
2	legionaries	legionary	NOUN	NNS	Number=Plur	3	nsubj	_	_
3	formed	form	VERB	VBD	Mood=Ind|Number=Plur|Person=3|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Fin	0	root	_	_
4	a	a	DET	DT	Definite=Ind|PronType=Art	5	det	_	_
5	testudo	testudo	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	3	obj	_	_
6	to	to	PART	TO	_	7	mark	_	_
7	protect	protect	VERB	VB	VerbForm=Inf	3	advcl	_	_
8	themselves	themselves	PRON	PRP	Case=Acc|Number=Plur|Person=3|PronType=Prs|Reflex=Yes	7	obj	_	SpaceAfter=No
9	.	.	PUNCT	.	_	3	punct	_	_
```

<!-- .fr -->
| # | verb | tense, mood | who | what, whom | to whom | where | when | other | roles by |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | **form** | past | the legionaries | a testudo |  |  |  |  | vn appear-48.1.1 «PP.location V NP»: agent=Location testudo=Theme |
| 2 | **protect** | to-infinitive | the legionaries *not said here* | legionaries *= legionary* |  |  |  |  | vn defend-72.3 «NP V NP»: agent=Agent themselves=Beneficiary |

## Example 2 {#x2}

<!-- .ven lang=en -->
In the testudo, the soldiers' shields made a roof.

```conllu
# sent_id = dict:school:testudo:x2:1
# text = In the testudo, the soldiers' shields made a roof.
1	In	in	ADP	IN	_	3	case	_	_
2	the	the	DET	DT	Definite=Def|PronType=Art	3	det	_	_
3	testudo	testudo	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	9	obl	_	SpaceAfter=No
4	,	,	PUNCT	,	_	3	punct	_	_
5	the	the	DET	DT	Definite=Def|PronType=Art	6	det	_	_
6	soldiers	soldier	NOUN	NNS	Number=Plur	8	nmod:poss	_	SpaceAfter=No
7	'	's	PART	POS	_	6	case	_	_
8	shields	shield	NOUN	NNS	Number=Plur	9	nsubj	_	_
9	made	make	VERB	VBD	Mood=Ind|Number=Plur|Person=3|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Fin	0	root	_	_
10	a	a	DET	DT	Definite=Ind|PronType=Art	11	det	_	_
11	roof	roof	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	9	obj	_	SpaceAfter=No
12	.	.	PUNCT	.	_	9	punct	_	_
```

<!-- .fr -->
| # | verb | tense, mood | who | what, whom | to whom | where | when | other | roles by |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | **make** | past | the soldiers's shields | a roof |  | the testudo |  |  | vn build-26.1-1 «NP.material V NP»: agent=Material roof=Product |

## Example 3 {#x3}

<!-- .ven lang=en -->
Testudo is Latin for tortoise.

```conllu
# sent_id = dict:school:testudo:x3:1
# text = Testudo is Latin for tortoise.
1	Testudo	testudo	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	3	nsubj	_	_
2	is	be	AUX	VBZ	Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=3|Tense=Pres|VerbForm=Fin	3	cop	_	_
3	Latin	Latin	ADJ	JJ	Degree=Pos	0	root	_	_
4	for	for	ADP	IN	_	5	case	_	_
5	tortoise	tortoise	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	3	obl	_	SpaceAfter=No
6	.	.	PUNCT	.	_	3	punct	_	_
```

<!-- .fr -->
| # | verb | tense, mood | who | what, whom | to whom | where | when | other | roles by |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | **is** | present | Testudo |  |  |  |  | for tortoise; latin *property* | tree rules |

## Example 4 {#x4}

<!-- .ven lang=en -->
Our class made a testudo with cardboard shields.

```conllu
# sent_id = dict:school:testudo:x4:1
# text = Our class made a testudo with cardboard shields.
1	Our	our	PRON	PRP$	Case=Gen|Number=Plur|Person=1|Poss=Yes|PronType=Prs	2	nmod:poss	_	_
2	class	class	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	3	nsubj	_	_
3	made	make	VERB	VBD	Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=3|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Fin	0	root	_	_
4	a	a	DET	DT	Definite=Ind|PronType=Art	5	det	_	_
5	testudo	testudo	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	3	obj	_	_
6	with	with	ADP	IN	_	8	case	_	_
7	cardboard	cardboard	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	8	compound	_	_
8	shields	shield	NOUN	NNS	Number=Plur	5	nmod	_	SpaceAfter=No
9	.	.	PUNCT	.	_	3	punct	_	_
```

<!-- .fr -->
| # | verb | tense, mood | who | what, whom | to whom | where | when | other | roles by |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | **make** | past | Our class | a testudo |  |  |  | with cardboard shields | vn build-26.1-1 «NP.asset V NP»: agent=Asset testudo=Product |

## Example 5 {#x5}

<!-- .ven lang=en -->
The arrows bounced off the testudo.

```conllu
# sent_id = dict:school:testudo:x5:1
# text = The arrows bounced off the testudo.
1	The	the	DET	DT	Definite=Def|PronType=Art	2	det	_	_
2	arrows	arrow	NOUN	NNS	Number=Plur	0	root	_	_
3	bounced	bounce	VERB	VBN	Tense=Past|VerbForm=Part|Voice=Pass	2	acl	_	_
4	off	off	ADP	IN	_	6	case	_	_
5	the	the	DET	DT	Definite=Def|PronType=Art	6	det	_	_
6	testudo	testudo	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	3	obl	_	SpaceAfter=No
7	.	.	PUNCT	.	_	2	punct	_	_
```

<!-- .fr -->
| # | verb | tense, mood | who | what, whom | to whom | where | when | other | roles by |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | **bounce off** | participle | the arrows *not said here* | the testudo |  |  |  |  | vn run-51.3.2-2 «NP V NP»: agent=Agent testudo=Agent |

## Example 6 {#x6}

<!-- .ven lang=en -->
Hermann's tortoise belongs to the genus Testudo.

```conllu
# sent_id = dict:school:testudo:x6:1
# text = Hermann's tortoise belongs to the genus Testudo.
1	Hermann	Hermann	PROPN	NNP	Number=Sing	3	nmod:poss	_	SpaceAfter=No
2	's	's	PART	POS	_	1	case	_	_
3	tortoise	tortoise	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	4	nsubj	_	_
4	belongs	belong	VERB	VBZ	Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=3|Tense=Pres|VerbForm=Fin	0	root	_	_
5	to	to	ADP	IN	_	7	case	_	_
6	the	the	DET	DT	Definite=Def|PronType=Art	7	det	_	_
7	genus	genus	NOUN	NN	Number=Sing	4	obl	_	_
8	Testudo	Testudo	PROPN	NNP	Number=Sing	7	appos	_	SpaceAfter=No
9	.	.	PUNCT	.	_	4	punct	_	_
```

<!-- .fr -->
| # | verb | tense, mood | who | what, whom | to whom | where | when | other | roles by |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | **belong** | present | Hermann's tortoise |  |  |  |  | to the genus | vn attend-107.4-2 «NP V PP»: agent=Theme |

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