--- title: Afghanistan — English Wikipedia · full text with trees · page 2 description: Wikipedia's «Afghanistan», whole, every sentence with its dependency tree and pragmatics, CC BY-SA 4.0. It begins: Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and South Asia. --- [Mova](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/) · [this page in HTML](https://mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Afghanistan/page/2/) [home](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/) / [corpora](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/) / [wikipedia](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/) / [en](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/) / Afghanistan # Afghanistan · page 2 From Wikipedia, [«Afghanistan»](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan), revision of the 2026-09-01 dump, [CC BY-SA 4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). The trees and pragmatics of these pages, Mova's parse of that text, are CC BY-SA 4.0 too. [1](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Afghanistan/) **2** [3](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Afghanistan/page/3/) … [7](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Afghanistan/page/7/) In 1219 CE, [Genghis Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan) and his [Mongol army overran the region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire).[78](../../78/ "tree and pragmatics") His troops are said to have annihilated the Khwarazmian cities of Herat and [Balkh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkh) as well as [Bamyan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Bamyan).[\[82\]](../../page/7/#ref-82 "note 82")[79](../../79/ "tree and pragmatics") The destruction caused by the Mongols forced many locals to return to an agrarian rural society.[\[83\]](../../page/7/#ref-83 "note 83")[80](../../80/ "tree and pragmatics") Mongol rule continued with the [Ilkhanate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilkhanate) in the northwest while the [Khalji dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khalji_dynasty) administered the Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush until the invasion of [Timur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur) (aka Tamerlane), who established the [Timurid Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timurid_Empire) in 1370.[81](../../81/ "tree and pragmatics") Under the rule of [Shah Rukh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Rukh), the city of Herat[\[84\]](../../page/7/#ref-84 "note 84") served as the focal point of the [Timurid Renaissance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timurid_Renaissance), whose glory matched [Florence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence) of the [Italian Renaissance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Renaissance) as the center of a cultural rebirth.[\[85\]](../../page/7/#ref-85 "note 85")[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[82](../../82/ "tree and pragmatics") In the early 16th century [Babur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babur) arrived from [Ferghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferghana) and captured Kabul from the [Arghun dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arghun_dynasty).[\[87\]](../../page/7/#ref-87 "note 87")[83](../../83/ "tree and pragmatics") Babur would go on to conquer the Afghan [Lodi dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lodi_dynasty) who had ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the [First Battle of Panipat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Battle_of_Panipat).[\[88\]](../../page/7/#ref-88 "note 88")[84](../../84/ "tree and pragmatics") Between the 16th and 18th century, the Uzbek [Khanate of Bukhara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khanate_of_Bukhara), Iranian [Safavids](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavids), and Indian [Mughals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughals) ruled parts of the territory.[\[89\]](../../page/7/#ref-89 "note 89")[85](../../85/ "tree and pragmatics") During the medieval period, the northwestern area of Afghanistan was referred to by the regional name [Khorasan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Khorasan), which was commonly used up to the 19th century among natives to describe their country.[\[90\]](../../page/7/#ref-90 "note 90")[\[91\]](../../page/7/#ref-91 "note 91")[\[92\]](../../page/7/#ref-92 "note 92")[\[93\]](../../page/7/#ref-93 "note 93")[86](../../86/ "tree and pragmatics") ### Hotak dynasty Main article: [Hotak dynasty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotak_dynasty) In 1709, [Mirwais Hotak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirwais_Hotak), a local [Ghilzai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghilzai) tribal leader, successfully rebelled against the Safavids.[87](../../87/ "tree and pragmatics") He defeated [Gurgin Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurgin_Khan), the Georgian governor of Kandahar under the Safavids, and established his own kingdom.[\[94\]](../../page/7/#ref-94 "note 94")[88](../../88/ "tree and pragmatics") Mirwais died in 1715, and was succeeded by his brother [Abdul Aziz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Aziz_Hotak), who was soon killed by Mirwais's son [Mahmud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud_Hotak) for possibly planning to sign a peace with the Safavids.[89](../../89/ "tree and pragmatics") Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 to the Persian capital of [Isfahan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan), and captured the city after the [Battle of Gulnabad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gulnabad) and proclaimed himself King of Persia.[\[94\]](../../page/7/#ref-94 "note 94")[90](../../90/ "tree and pragmatics") The Afghan dynasty was ousted from Persia by [Nader Shah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nader_Shah) after the 1729 [Battle of Damghan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Damghan_%281729%29).[91](../../91/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1738, Nader Shah and his [forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afsharid_dynasty) captured Kandahar in the [siege of Kandahar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Kandahar), the last Hotak stronghold, from Shah [Hussain Hotak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hussain_Hotak).[92](../../92/ "tree and pragmatics") Soon after, the Persian and Afghan forces [invaded India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nader_Shah%27s_invasion_of_India), Nader Shah had plundered Delhi, alongside his 16-year-old commander, [Ahmad Shah Durrani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Durrani) who had assisted him on these campaigns.[93](../../93/ "tree and pragmatics") Nader Shah was assassinated in 1747.[\[95\]](../../page/7/#ref-95 "note 95")[\[96\]](../../page/7/#ref-96 "note 96")[94](../../94/ "tree and pragmatics") ### Durrani Empire Main article: [Durrani Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durrani_Empire) See also: [Ahmad Shah Durrani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Durrani) Ahmad Shah had launched two campaigns into Khorasan, 1750–1751 and 1754–1755.[\[97\]](../../page/7/#ref-97 "note 97")[95](../../95/ "tree and pragmatics") ### Barakzai dynasty and British wars Further information: [Dost Mohammad Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dost_Mohammad_Khan), [Herat (1793–1863)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herat_%281793–1863%29), [Maimana Khanate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maimana_Khanate), [Principality of Kandahar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Kandahar), [European influence in Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_influence_in_Afghanistan), [Anglo-Afghan Wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Afghan_Wars), [Durand Line](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durand_Line), [Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_%281928–1929%29) By the early 19th century, the Afghan empire was under threat from the [Persians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qajar_dynasty) in the west and the [Sikh Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikh_Empire) in the east.[96](../../96/ "tree and pragmatics") [Fateh Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fateh_Khan_Barakzai), leader of the [Barakzai tribe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barakzai_dynasty), installed many of his brothers in positions of power throughout the empire.[97](../../97/ "tree and pragmatics") Fateh Khan was [brutally murdered](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torture_and_Execution_of_Fateh_Khan_Barakzai) in 1818 by [Mahmud Shah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud_Shah_Durrani).[98](../../98/ "tree and pragmatics") As a result, the brothers of Fateh Khan and the [Barakzai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barakzai) tribe rebelled, and a civil war brewed.[99](../../99/ "tree and pragmatics") During this turbulent period, Afghanistan fractured into many states, including the [Principality of Qandahar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Qandahar), [Emirate of Herat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herat_%281793–1863%29), [Khanate of Qunduz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunduz_Khanate), [Maimana Khanate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maimana_Khanate), and numerous other warring polities.[100](../../100/ "tree and pragmatics") The most prominent state was the [Emirate of Kabul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan), ruled by [Dost Mohammad Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dost_Mohammad_Khan).[\[98\]](../../page/7/#ref-98 "note 98")[\[99\]](../../page/7/#ref-99 "note 99")[101](../../101/ "tree and pragmatics") [Akbar Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wazir_Akbar_Khan) and the Afghan army failed to capture the [Jamrud Fort](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamrud_Fort) from the [Sikh Khalsa Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikh_Khalsa_Army), but killed Sikh commander [Hari Singh Nalwa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hari_Singh_Nalwa), thus ending the [Afghan-Sikh Wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan-Sikh_Wars).[\[100\]](../../page/7/#ref-100 "note 100")[102](../../102/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1893, Abdur Rahman signed an agreement in which the ethnic Pashtun and [Baloch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baloch_people) territories were divided by the [Durand Line](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durand_Line), which forms the modern-day border between Pakistan and Afghanistan.[103](../../103/ "tree and pragmatics") [Hazara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazaras) dominated [Hazaristan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazarajat)[\[101\]](../../page/7/#ref-101 "note 101") and pagan [Kafiristan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kafiristan) remained politically independent until being [conquered](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_Afghanistan) by Abdur Rahman Khan in 1891–1896.[104](../../104/ "tree and pragmatics") He was known as the "Iron Amir" for his features and his ruthless methods against tribes.[\[102\]](../../page/7/#ref-102 "note 102")[105](../../105/ "tree and pragmatics") He died in 1901, succeeded by his son, [Habibullah Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habibullah_Khan).[106](../../106/ "tree and pragmatics") How can a small power like Afghanistan, which is like a goat between these lions \[Britain and Russia\] or a grain of wheat between two strong millstones of the grinding mill, stand in the midway of the stones without being ground to dust? — [Abdur Rahman Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdur_Rahman_Khan), the "Iron Amir", in 1900[\[103\]](../../page/7/#ref-103 "note 103")[\[104\]](../../page/7/#ref-104 "note 104")[107](../../107/ "tree and pragmatics") During the [First World War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_World_War), when Afghanistan was neutral, Habibullah Khan was met by officials of the [Central Powers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Powers) in the [Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niedermayer–Hentig_Expedition).[108](../../108/ "tree and pragmatics") They called on Afghanistan to declare full independence from the United Kingdom, join them and attack British India, as part of the [Hindu–German Conspiracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu–German_Conspiracy).[109](../../109/ "tree and pragmatics") The effort to bring Afghanistan into the Central Powers failed, but it sparked discontent among the population about maintaining neutrality with the British.[110](../../110/ "tree and pragmatics") Habibullah was assassinated in February 1919, and [Amanullah Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanullah_Khan) eventually assumed power.[111](../../111/ "tree and pragmatics") A staunch supporter of the 1915–1916 expeditions, Amanullah Khan invaded British India, beginning the [Third Anglo-Afghan War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Anglo-Afghan_War), and entering British India via the [Khyber Pass](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khyber_Pass).[\[105\]](../../page/7/#ref-105 "note 105")[112](../../112/ "tree and pragmatics") Following the end of the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of the [Treaty of Rawalpindi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Afghan_Treaty_of_1919) on 19 August 1919, [Emir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emir_of_Afghanistan) Amanullah Khan declared the [Emirate of Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan) a [sovereign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state) and fully [independent state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_state).[113](../../113/ "tree and pragmatics") He moved to end his country's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international community, particularly with the [Soviet Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union) and the [Weimar Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Republic).[\[106\]](../../page/7/#ref-106 "note 106")[\[107\]](../../page/7/#ref-107 "note 107")[114](../../114/ "tree and pragmatics") He proclaimed himself [King of Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Afghanistan) on 9 June 1926, forming the [Kingdom of Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan).[115](../../115/ "tree and pragmatics") He introduced several reforms intended to modernize his nation.[116](../../116/ "tree and pragmatics") A key force behind these reforms was [Mahmud Tarzi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud_Tarzi), an ardent supporter of the education of women.[117](../../117/ "tree and pragmatics") He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's [1923 constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1923_Constitution_of_Afghanistan), which implemented compulsory elementary education.[118](../../118/ "tree and pragmatics") [Slavery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery) was abolished in 1923.[\[108\]](../../page/7/#ref-108 "note 108")[119](../../119/ "tree and pragmatics") King Amanullah's wife, [Queen Soraya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soraya_Tarzi), was an important figure during this period in the fight for women's education and against their oppression.[\[109\]](../../page/7/#ref-109 "note 109")[120](../../120/ "tree and pragmatics") Some of the reforms, such as the abolition of the traditional [burqa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burqa) for women and the opening of co-educational schools, alienated many tribal and religious leaders, leading to the [Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_%281928–1929%29).[121](../../121/ "tree and pragmatics") King Amanullah abdicated in January 1929, and soon after Kabul fell to [Saqqawist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saqqawists) forces led by [Habibullah Kalakani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habibullah_Kalakani).[\[110\]](../../page/7/#ref-110 "note 110")[122](../../122/ "tree and pragmatics") [Mohammad Nadir Shah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Nadir_Shah), Amanullah's cousin, defeated and killed Kalakani in October 1929, and was declared King Nadir Shah.[\[111\]](../../page/7/#ref-111 "note 111")[123](../../123/ "tree and pragmatics") He abandoned the reforms of King Amanullah in favor of a more gradual approach to modernization, but was assassinated in 1933 by [Abdul Khaliq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Khaliq_Hazara_%28assassin%29).[\[112\]](../../page/7/#ref-112 "note 112")[124](../../124/ "tree and pragmatics") Mohammed Zahir Shah succeeded to the throne and reigned as king from 1933 to 1973.[125](../../125/ "tree and pragmatics") During the [tribal revolts of 1944–1947](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_tribal_revolts_of_1944–1947), King Zahir's reign was challenged by [Zadran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zadran_%28Pashtun_tribe%29), [Safi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safi_%28tribe%29), [Mangal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangal_%28Pashtun_tribe%29), and [Wazir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wazir_%28Pashtun_tribe%29) tribesmen led by [Mazrak Zadran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazrak_Zadran), [Salemai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salemai), and [Faqir of Ipi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faqir_of_Ipi), among others – many of whom were [Amanullah loyalists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanullah_loyalism).[126](../../126/ "tree and pragmatics") Afghanistan joined the [League of Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nations) in 1934.[127](../../127/ "tree and pragmatics") In the 1930s, the country experienced significant development of roads, infrastructure, the founding of a [national bank](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da_Afghanistan_Bank), and increased education.[128](../../128/ "tree and pragmatics") Road links in the north played a large part in a growing cotton and textile industry.[\[113\]](../../page/7/#ref-113 "note 113")[129](../../129/ "tree and pragmatics") The country built close relationships with the [Axis powers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_powers), with [Nazi Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany) having the largest share in Afghan development at the time.[\[114\]](../../page/7/#ref-114 "note 114")[130](../../130/ "tree and pragmatics") Until 1946, King Zahir ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post of [prime minister](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Afghanistan) and continued the policies of Nadir Shah.[131](../../131/ "tree and pragmatics") Another uncle, [Shah Mahmud Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Mahmud_Khan), became prime minister in 1946 and experimented with allowing greater political freedom.[132](../../132/ "tree and pragmatics") He was replaced in 1953 by [Mohammed Daoud Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_Daoud_Khan), a Pashtun nationalist who sought the creation of a [Pashtunistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashtunistan), leading to highly tense relations with Pakistan.[\[115\]](../../page/7/#ref-115 "note 115")[133](../../133/ "tree and pragmatics") Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms and sought a closer relationship with the Soviet Union.[134](../../134/ "tree and pragmatics") Afterward, the [1964 constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964_Constitution_of_Afghanistan) was formed, and the first non-royal prime minister was sworn in.[\[113\]](../../page/7/#ref-113 "note 113")[135](../../135/ "tree and pragmatics") Zahir Shah, like his father Nadir Shah, had a policy of maintaining national independence while pursuing gradual modernization, creating nationalist feeling, and improving relations with the United Kingdom.[136](../../136/ "tree and pragmatics") Afghanistan was neither a participant in [World War II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II) nor aligned with either power bloc in the [Cold War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War).[137](../../137/ "tree and pragmatics") However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building Afghanistan's main highways, airports, and other vital infrastructure.[138](../../138/ "tree and pragmatics") On a per capita basis, Afghanistan received more Soviet [development aid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development_aid) than any other country.[139](../../139/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1973, while the King was in Italy, Daoud Khan launched a [bloodless coup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup) and became the first [president of Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Afghanistan), abolishing the monarchy.[140](../../140/ "tree and pragmatics") ### Democratic Republic and Soviet War Main article: [Democratic Republic of Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan), [Soviet–Afghan War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet–Afghan_War), [Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_%281989–1992%29) Further information: [History of Afghanistan (1978–1992)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan_%281978–1992%29) In April 1978, the communist [People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan) (PDPA) seized power in a bloody coup d'état against then-President [Mohammed Daoud Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_Daoud_Khan), in what is called the [Saur Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saur_Revolution).[141](../../141/ "tree and pragmatics") The PDPA declared the establishment of the [Democratic Republic of Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan), with its first leader named as [People's Democratic Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan) General Secretary [Nur Muhammad Taraki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nur_Muhammad_Taraki).[\[116\]](../../page/7/#ref-116 "note 116")[142](../../142/ "tree and pragmatics") This would trigger a series of events that would dramatically turn Afghanistan from a peaceful (albeit poor and secluded) country to a hotbed of conflict and terrorism.[\[117\]](../../page/7/#ref-117 "note 117")[143](../../143/ "tree and pragmatics") The PDPA initiated various social, symbolic, and land distribution reforms that provoked strong opposition, while also brutally oppressing political dissidents.[144](../../144/ "tree and pragmatics") This caused unrest and quickly expanded into a state of [civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_conflict) by 1979, waged by guerrilla [mujahideen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mujahideen) (and smaller [Maoist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maoist) guerrillas) against regime forces countrywide.[145](../../145/ "tree and pragmatics") It quickly turned into a [proxy war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy_war) as the Pakistani government provided these rebels with covert training centers, the United States [supported](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Cyclone) them through Pakistan's [Inter-Services Intelligence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-Services_Intelligence) (ISI),[\[118\]](../../page/7/#ref-118 "note 118") and the Soviet Union sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA regime.[\[119\]](../../page/7/#ref-119 "note 119")[146](../../146/ "tree and pragmatics") Meanwhile, there was increasingly hostile friction between the competing factions of the PDPA – the dominant [Khalq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khalq) and the more moderate [Parcham](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parcham).[\[120\]](../../page/7/#ref-120 "note 120")[147](../../147/ "tree and pragmatics") In October 1979, PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated in an internal coup orchestrated by then-prime minister [Hafizullah Amin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin), who became the new general secretary of the PDPA.[148](../../148/ "tree and pragmatics") The situation in the country deteriorated under Amin, and thousands of people went missing.[\[121\]](../../page/7/#ref-121 "note 121")[149](../../149/ "tree and pragmatics") Displeased with Amin's government, the [Soviet Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Armed_Forces) invaded the country in December 1979, heading for Kabul and killing Amin.[\[122\]](../../page/7/#ref-122 "note 122")[150](../../150/ "tree and pragmatics") A Soviet-organized regime, led by Parcham's [Babrak Karmal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal) but inclusive of both factions (Parcham and Khalq), filled the vacuum.[151](../../151/ "tree and pragmatics") Soviet troops in more substantial numbers were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal, marking the beginning of the [Soviet–Afghan War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet–Afghan_War).[\[123\]](../../page/7/#ref-123 "note 123")[152](../../152/ "tree and pragmatics") Lasting nine years, the war caused the deaths of between 562,000[\[124\]](../../page/7/#ref-124 "note 124") and 2 million Afghans,[\[132\]](../../page/7/#ref-132 "note 132") and displaced about 6 million people who subsequently fled Afghanistan, mainly to Pakistan and Iran.[\[133\]](../../page/7/#ref-133 "note 133")[153](../../153/ "tree and pragmatics") Heavy air bombardment destroyed many countryside villages, millions of [landmines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmine) were planted,[\[134\]](../../page/7/#ref-134 "note 134") and some cities such as Herat and Kandahar were also damaged from bombardment.[154](../../154/ "tree and pragmatics") After the [Soviet withdrawal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan), another [civil war ensued](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_%281989-92%29) until the communist regime under PDPA leader [Mohammad Najibullah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah) collapsed in 1992.[\[135\]](../../page/7/#ref-135 "note 135")[\[136\]](../../page/7/#ref-136 "note 136")[\[137\]](../../page/7/#ref-137 "note 137")[155](../../155/ "tree and pragmatics") The Soviet–Afghan War had drastic social effects on Afghanistan.[156](../../156/ "tree and pragmatics") The militarization of society led to heavily armed police, private bodyguards, openly armed civil defense groups, and the like becoming the norm in Afghanistan for decades thereafter.[\[138\]](../../page/7/#ref-138 "note 138")[157](../../157/ "tree and pragmatics") The traditional power structure had shifted from the clergy, community elders, intelligentsia, and military in favor of powerful [warlords](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warlords).[\[139\]](../../page/7/#ref-139 "note 139")[158](../../158/ "tree and pragmatics") ### Post–Cold War conflict See also: [Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_%281992–1996%29), [Afghan Civil War (1996–2001)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_%281996–2001%29), [Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan_%281996–2001%29), [Northern Alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Alliance) Another civil war broke out after the [creation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peshawar_Accords) of a dysfunctional coalition [government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan) between leaders of various mujahideen factions.[159](../../159/ "tree and pragmatics") Amid a state of anarchy and factional infighting,[\[140\]](../../page/7/#ref-140 "note 140")[\[141\]](../../page/7/#ref-141 "note 141")[\[142\]](../../page/7/#ref-142 "note 142") various mujahideen factions committed widespread rape, murder, and extortion,[\[141\]](../../page/7/#ref-141 "note 141")[\[143\]](../../page/7/#ref-143 "note 143")[\[144\]](../../page/7/#ref-144 "note 144") while Kabul was heavily bombarded and partially destroyed by the fighting.[\[144\]](../../page/7/#ref-144 "note 144")[160](../../160/ "tree and pragmatics") Several failed reconciliations and alliances occurred between different leaders.[\[145\]](../../page/7/#ref-145 "note 145")[161](../../161/ "tree and pragmatics") The [Taliban](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taliban) emerged in September 1994 as a movement and militia of students (talib) from Islamic [madrassas (schools) in Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrassas_in_Pakistan),[\[144\]](../../page/7/#ref-144 "note 144")[\[146\]](../../page/7/#ref-146 "note 146") who soon had military support from Pakistan.[\[147\]](../../page/7/#ref-147 "note 147")[162](../../162/ "tree and pragmatics") Taking control of Kandahar city that year,[\[144\]](../../page/7/#ref-144 "note 144") they conquered more territories until finally driving out the government of [Rabbani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burhanuddin_Rabbani) from Kabul in 1996,[\[148\]](../../page/7/#ref-148 "note 148")[\[149\]](../../page/7/#ref-149 "note 149") where they established an [emirate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan_%281996–2001%29).[\[150\]](../../page/7/#ref-150 "note 150")[163](../../163/ "tree and pragmatics") The Taliban were condemned internationally for the harsh enforcement of their interpretation of Islamic [sharia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia) law, which resulted in the brutal treatment of many Afghans, especially [women](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taliban_treatment_of_women).[\[151\]](../../page/7/#ref-151 "note 151")[\[152\]](../../page/7/#ref-152 "note 152")[164](../../164/ "tree and pragmatics") During their rule, the Taliban and their allies committed massacres against Afghan civilians, denied UN food supplies to starving civilians, and conducted a policy of [scorched earth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorched_earth), burning vast areas of fertile land and destroying tens of thousands of homes.[\[159\]](../../page/7/#ref-159 "note 159")[165](../../165/ "tree and pragmatics") [After the fall of Kabul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kabul_%281992–1996%29) to the Taliban, [Ahmad Shah Massoud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Massoud) and [Abdul Rashid Dostum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Rashid_Dostum) formed the [Northern Alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Alliance), later joined by others, to resist the Taliban.[166](../../166/ "tree and pragmatics") Dostum's forces were defeated by the Taliban during the [Battles of Mazar-i-Sharif](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battles_of_Mazar-i-Sharif_%281997–1998%29) in 1997 and 1998; Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff, [Pervez Musharraf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pervez_Musharraf), began sending thousands of Pakistani militants to help the Taliban defeat the Northern Alliance.[\[164\]](../../page/7/#ref-164 "note 164")[167](../../167/ "tree and pragmatics") By 2000, the Northern Alliance only controlled 10% of the territory, cornered in the northeast.[168](../../168/ "tree and pragmatics") On 9 September 2001, Massoud was assassinated by two Arab [suicide attackers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide_attack) in [Panjshir Valley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panjshir_Valley).[169](../../169/ "tree and pragmatics") Around 400,000 Afghans died in internal conflicts between 1990 and 2001.[\[165\]](../../page/7/#ref-165 "note 165")[170](../../170/ "tree and pragmatics") [1](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Afghanistan/) **2** [3](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Afghanistan/page/3/) … [7](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Afghanistan/page/7/) - ← previous: [page 1](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Afghanistan/) - next →: [page 3](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Afghanistan/page/3/) - ↑ back to [English Wikipedia](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/)