--- title: Belarus — English Wikipedia · full text with trees · page 2 description: Wikipedia's «Belarus», whole, every sentence with its dependency tree and pragmatics, CC BY-SA 4.0. It begins: Belarus, officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. --- [Mova](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/) · [this page in HTML](https://mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Belarus/page/2/) [home](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/) / [corpora](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/) / [wikipedia](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/) / [en](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/) / Belarus # Belarus · page 2 From Wikipedia, [«Belarus»](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus), revision of the 2026-09-01 dump, [CC BY-SA 4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). The trees and pragmatics of these pages, Mova's parse of that text, are CC BY-SA 4.0 too. [1](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Belarus/) **2** [3](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Belarus/page/3/) [4](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Belarus/page/4/) [5](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Belarus/page/5/) Under [Nicholas I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia) and [Alexander III](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia) the national cultures were repressed with policies of [Polonization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonisation)[\[50\]](../../page/5/#ref-50 "note 50") replaced by [Russification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russification)[\[51\]](../../page/5/#ref-51 "note 51") which included the return to [Orthodox Christianity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church) of Belarusian [Uniates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Brest).[74](../../74/ "tree and pragmatics") Belarusian language was banned in schools while in nearby [Samogitia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samogitia) primary school education with [Samogitian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samogitian_dialect) literacy was allowed.[\[52\]](../../page/5/#ref-52 "note 52")[75](../../75/ "tree and pragmatics") In a [Russification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russification) drive in the 1840s, [Nicholas I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia) prohibited the use of the Belarusian language in public schools, campaigned against Belarusian publications, and tried to pressure those who had converted to Catholicism under the Poles to reconvert to the Orthodox faith.[76](../../76/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1863, economic and cultural pressure exploded in a [revolt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_Uprising), led by [Konstanty Kalinowski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanty_Kalinowski) (also known as Kastus).[77](../../77/ "tree and pragmatics") After the failed revolt, the Russian government reintroduced the use of [Cyrillic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_script) to Belarusian in 1864 and no documents in Belarusian were permitted by the Russian government until 1905.[\[53\]](../../page/5/#ref-53 "note 53")[78](../../78/ "tree and pragmatics") During the negotiations of the [Treaty of Brest-Litovsk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk_%28Russia–Central_Powers%29), Belarus first declared independence under German occupation on 25 March 1918, forming the [Belarusian People's Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_People%27s_Republic).[\[54\]](../../page/5/#ref-54 "note 54")[\[55\]](../../page/5/#ref-55 "note 55")[79](../../79/ "tree and pragmatics") Immediately afterwards, the [Polish–Soviet War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish–Soviet_War) ignited, and the territory of Belarus was divided between Poland and Soviet Russia.[\[56\]](../../page/5/#ref-56 "note 56")[80](../../80/ "tree and pragmatics") The Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic exists as a [government in exile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_in_exile) ever since then; in fact, it is currently the world's longest serving government in exile.[\[57\]](../../page/5/#ref-57 "note 57")[81](../../81/ "tree and pragmatics") ### Early states and interwar period The [Belarusian People's Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_People%27s_Republic) was the first attempt to create an independent Belarusian state under the name "Belarus".[82](../../82/ "tree and pragmatics") Despite significant efforts, the state ceased to exist, primarily because the territory was continually dominated by the [Imperial German Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_German_Army) and the [Imperial Russian Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army) in [World War I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I), and then the [Bolshevik](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik) [Red Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army).[83](../../83/ "tree and pragmatics") It existed from only 1918 to 1919 but created prerequisites for the formation of a Belarusian state.[84](../../84/ "tree and pragmatics") The choice of name was probably based on the fact that core members of the newly formed government were educated in tsarist universities, with corresponding emphasis on the ideology of West-Russianism.[\[58\]](../../page/5/#ref-58 "note 58")[85](../../85/ "tree and pragmatics") The [Republic of Central Lithuania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Central_Lithuania) was a short-lived political entity, which was the last attempt to restore Lithuania to the historical confederacy state (it was also supposed to create Lithuania Upper and Lithuania Lower).[86](../../86/ "tree and pragmatics") The republic was created in 1920 following [the staged rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Żeligowski%27s_Mutiny) of soldiers of the [1st Lithuanian–Belarusian Division](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Lithuanian–Belarusian_Division) of the [Polish Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Army) under [Lucjan Żeligowski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucjan_Żeligowski).[87](../../87/ "tree and pragmatics") Centred on the historical capital of the [Grand Duchy of Lithuania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania), [Vilna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilna) (Vilnius, Wilno), for 18 months the entity served as a [buffer state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffer_state) between [Poland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland) [corpus](../../../Poland/ "in our corpus"), upon which it depended, and Lithuania, which claimed the area.[\[59\]](../../page/5/#ref-59 "note 59")[88](../../88/ "tree and pragmatics") After a variety of delays, [a disputed election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1922_Republic_of_Central_Lithuania_general_election) took place on 8 January 1922, and the territory was annexed to Poland.[89](../../89/ "tree and pragmatics") Żeligowski later in his memoir which was published in London in 1943 condemned the annexation of the Republic by Poland, as well as the policy of closing Belarusian schools and general disregard of Marshal [Józef Piłsudski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Józef_Piłsudski)'s confederation plans by Polish ally.[\[60\]](../../page/5/#ref-60 "note 60")[90](../../90/ "tree and pragmatics") In January 1919, a part of Belarus under Bolshevik Russian control was declared the [Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Soviet_Republic_of_Byelorussia) (SSRB) for just two months, but then merged with the [Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic) (LSSR) to form the [Socialist Soviet Republic of Lithuania and Belorussia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Soviet_Republic_of_Lithuania_and_Belorussia) (SSR LiB), which lost control of its territories by August.[91](../../91/ "tree and pragmatics") The [Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic) (BSSR) was created in July 1920.[\[61\]](../../page/5/#ref-61 "note 61")[92](../../92/ "tree and pragmatics") The contested lands were divided between Poland and the [Soviet Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union) after the war ended in 1921, and the Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922.[\[54\]](../../page/5/#ref-54 "note 54")[\[62\]](../../page/5/#ref-62 "note 62")[93](../../93/ "tree and pragmatics") In the 1920s and 1930s, Soviet agricultural and economic policies, including [collectivisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivisation) and [five-year plans for the national economy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union), led to famine and political repression.[\[63\]](../../page/5/#ref-63 "note 63")[94](../../94/ "tree and pragmatics") The [western part of modern Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Belorussia) remained part of the [Second Polish Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic).[\[64\]](../../page/5/#ref-64 "note 64")[\[65\]](../../page/5/#ref-65 "note 65")[95](../../95/ "tree and pragmatics") After an early period of liberalisation, tensions between increasingly nationalistic Polish government and various increasingly separatist ethnic minorities started to grow, and the [Belarusian minority](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_minority_in_Poland) was no exception.[\[66\]](../../page/5/#ref-66 "note 66")[\[67\]](../../page/5/#ref-67 "note 67")[96](../../96/ "tree and pragmatics") The [polonisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonisation) drive was inspired and influenced by the Polish [National Democracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Democracy_%28Poland%29), led by [Roman Dmowski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Dmowski), who advocated refusing Belarusians and Ukrainians the right for a free national development.[\[68\]](../../page/5/#ref-68 "note 68")[97](../../97/ "tree and pragmatics") A Belarusian organisation, the [Belarusian Peasants' and Workers' Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_Peasants%27_and_Workers%27_Union), was banned in 1927, and opposition to Polish government was met with state repressions.[\[66\]](../../page/5/#ref-66 "note 66")[\[67\]](../../page/5/#ref-67 "note 67")[98](../../98/ "tree and pragmatics") Nonetheless, compared to the (larger) [Ukrainian minority](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_minority_in_Poland), Belarusians were much less politically aware and active, and thus suffered fewer repressions than the Ukrainians.[\[66\]](../../page/5/#ref-66 "note 66")[\[67\]](../../page/5/#ref-67 "note 67")[99](../../99/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1935, after the death of Piłsudski, a new wave of repressions was released upon the minorities, with many [Orthodox churches](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_Orthodox_Church) and Belarusian schools being closed.[\[66\]](../../page/5/#ref-66 "note 66")[\[67\]](../../page/5/#ref-67 "note 67")[100](../../100/ "tree and pragmatics") Use of the [Belarusian language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_language) was discouraged.[\[69\]](../../page/5/#ref-69 "note 69")[101](../../101/ "tree and pragmatics") Belarusian leadership was sent to [Bereza Kartuska prison](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bereza_Kartuska_prison).[\[70\]](../../page/5/#ref-70 "note 70")[102](../../102/ "tree and pragmatics") ### World War II Main article: [Byelorussia in World War II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byelorussia_in_World_War_II), [German occupation of Byelorussia during World War II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Byelorussia_during_World_War_II) In September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded and occupied eastern Poland, following the German [invasion of Poland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland) two weeks earlier which marked the beginning of [World War II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II).[103](../../103/ "tree and pragmatics") The territories of [Western Belorussia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Belorussia) were [annexed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_annexation_of_Western_Belorussia) and incorporated into the Byelorussian SSR.[\[71\]](../../page/5/#ref-71 "note 71")[\[72\]](../../page/5/#ref-72 "note 72")[\[73\]](../../page/5/#ref-73 "note 73")[\[74\]](../../page/5/#ref-74 "note 74")[104](../../104/ "tree and pragmatics") The Soviet-controlled Byelorussian People's Council officially took control of the territories, whose populations consisted of a mixture of Poles, Ukrainians, Belarusians and Jews, on 28 October 1939 in [Białystok](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Białystok).[105](../../105/ "tree and pragmatics") Nazi Germany [invaded the Soviet Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa) in 1941.[106](../../106/ "tree and pragmatics") The [defence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_of_Brest_Fortress) of [Brest Fortress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brest_Fortress) was the first major battle of [Operation Barbarossa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa).[107](../../107/ "tree and pragmatics") The Byelorussian SSR was the hardest-hit Soviet republic in World War II; it remained under [German occupation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Byelorussia_during_World_War_II) until 1944.[108](../../108/ "tree and pragmatics") The German [Generalplan Ost](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalplan_Ost) called for the extermination, expulsion, or enslavement of most or all Belarusians to provide more [living space](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebensraum) in the [East](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drang_nach_Osten) for Germans.[\[75\]](../../page/5/#ref-75 "note 75")[109](../../109/ "tree and pragmatics") Most of Western Belarus became part of the [Reichskommissariat Ostland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ostland) in 1941, but in 1943 the German authorities allowed local [collaborators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byelorussian_collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany) to set up a client state, the [Belarusian Central Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_Central_Council).[\[76\]](../../page/5/#ref-76 "note 76")[110](../../110/ "tree and pragmatics") During World War II, Belarus was home to a variety of [guerrilla movements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_resistance_during_World_War_II), including Jewish, Polish, and [Soviet partisans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_partisans).[111](../../111/ "tree and pragmatics") Belarusian partisan formations formed a large part of the Soviet partisans,[\[77\]](../../page/5/#ref-77 "note 77") and in the modern day these partisans have formed a core part of the Belarusian national identity, with Belarus continuing to refer to itself as the "partisan republic" since the 1970s.[\[78\]](../../page/5/#ref-78 "note 78")[\[79\]](../../page/5/#ref-79 "note 79")[112](../../112/ "tree and pragmatics") Following the war, many former Soviet partisans entered positions of government, among them [Pyotr Masherov](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr_Masherov) and [Kirill Mazurov](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirill_Mazurov), both of whom were First Secretary of the Communist Party of Byelorussia.[113](../../113/ "tree and pragmatics") Until the late 1970s, the Belarusian government was almost entirely composed of former partisans.[\[80\]](../../page/5/#ref-80 "note 80")[114](../../114/ "tree and pragmatics") Numerous pieces of media have been made about the Belarusian partisans, including the 1985 film [Come and See](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Come_and_See) and the works of authors [Ales Adamovich](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ales_Adamovich) and [Vasil Bykaŭ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasil_Bykaŭ).[115](../../115/ "tree and pragmatics") The German occupation in 1941–1944 and war on the [Eastern Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Front_%28World_War_II%29) devastated Belarus.[116](../../116/ "tree and pragmatics") During that time, 209 out of 290 towns and cities were destroyed, 85% of the republic's industry, and more than one million buildings.[117](../../117/ "tree and pragmatics") After the war, it was estimated that 2.2 million local inhabitants had died, and of those some 810,000 were combatants—some foreign.[118](../../118/ "tree and pragmatics") This figure represented [a staggering quarter of the prewar population](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_casualties_of_the_Soviet_Union).[\[81\]](../../page/5/#ref-81 "note 81")[119](../../119/ "tree and pragmatics") In the 1990s some raised the estimate even higher, to 2.7 million.[\[82\]](../../page/5/#ref-82 "note 82")[120](../../120/ "tree and pragmatics") The [Jewish population of Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belarus) was devastated during [the Holocaust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust) and never recovered.[\[81\]](../../page/5/#ref-81 "note 81")[\[83\]](../../page/5/#ref-83 "note 83")[\[84\]](../../page/5/#ref-84 "note 84")[121](../../121/ "tree and pragmatics") The population of Belarus did not regain its pre-war level until 1971.[\[83\]](../../page/5/#ref-83 "note 83")[122](../../122/ "tree and pragmatics") Belarus was also hit hard economically, losing around half of its economic resources.[\[81\]](../../page/5/#ref-81 "note 81")[123](../../123/ "tree and pragmatics") ### Post-war The borders of the Byelorussian SSR and Poland were redrawn, in accord with the 1919-proposed [Curzon Line](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curzon_Line).[\[49\]](../../page/5/#ref-49 "note 49")[124](../../124/ "tree and pragmatics") Byelorus gained territory to the west: the formerly Polish [Kresy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kresy).[125](../../125/ "tree and pragmatics") [Joseph Stalin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin) implemented a policy of [Sovietisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovietization) to isolate the Byelorussian SSR from [Western influences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world).[\[83\]](../../page/5/#ref-83 "note 83")[126](../../126/ "tree and pragmatics") This policy involved sending Russians from various parts of the Soviet Union and placing them in key positions in the Byelorussian SSR government.[127](../../127/ "tree and pragmatics") After Stalin died in 1953, [Nikita Khrushchev](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev) continued his predecessor's [cultural hegemony](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_hegemony) programme, stating, "The sooner we all start speaking Russian, the faster we shall build communism."[\[83\]](../../page/5/#ref-83 "note 83")[128](../../128/ "tree and pragmatics") Between Stalin's death in 1953 and 1980, Belarusian politics was dominated by former members of the Soviet partisans, including First Secretaries Kirill Mazurov and Pyotr Masherov.[\[80\]](../../page/5/#ref-80 "note 80")[129](../../129/ "tree and pragmatics") Mazurov and Masherov oversaw Belarus's [rapid industrialisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_economic_miracle) and transformation from one of the Soviet Union's poorest republics into one of its richest.[\[85\]](../../page/5/#ref-85 "note 85")[130](../../130/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1986, the Byelorussian SSR was contaminated with most (70%) of the [nuclear fallout](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fallout) from the explosion at the [Chernobyl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster) power plant located 16 km beyond the border in the neighbouring [Ukrainian SSR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic).[\[86\]](../../page/5/#ref-86 "note 86")[\[87\]](../../page/5/#ref-87 "note 87")[131](../../131/ "tree and pragmatics") By the late 1980s, political liberalisation led to a national revival, with the [Belarusian Popular Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_Popular_Front) becoming a major pro-independence force.[\[88\]](../../page/5/#ref-88 "note 88")[\[89\]](../../page/5/#ref-89 "note 89")[132](../../132/ "tree and pragmatics") ### Independence In March 1990, [elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12th_Belarusian_Supreme_Council) for seats in the [Supreme Soviet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Soviet) of the Byelorussian SSR took place.[133](../../133/ "tree and pragmatics") Though the opposition candidates, mostly associated with the pro-independence [Belarusian Popular Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_Popular_Front), took only 10% of the seats,[\[90\]](../../page/5/#ref-90 "note 90") Belarus declared itself sovereign on 27 July 1990 by issuing the [Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_State_Sovereignty_of_the_Belarusian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic).[\[91\]](../../page/5/#ref-91 "note 91")[134](../../134/ "tree and pragmatics") [Wide-scale strikes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_Belarusian_strikes) erupted in April 1991.[135](../../135/ "tree and pragmatics") With the support of the [Communist Party of Byelorussia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Byelorussia), the country's name was changed to the Republic of Belarus on 25 August 1991.[\[92\]](../../page/5/#ref-92 "note 92")[\[90\]](../../page/5/#ref-90 "note 90")[136](../../136/ "tree and pragmatics") [Stanislav Shushkevich](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanislav_Shushkevich), the chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, met with [Boris Yeltsin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin) of Russia and [Leonid Kravchuk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonid_Kravchuk) of Ukraine on 8 December 1991 in [Białowieża Forest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Białowieża_Forest) to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the [Commonwealth of Independent States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States).[\[90\]](../../page/5/#ref-90 "note 90")[137](../../137/ "tree and pragmatics") In January 1992, the [Belarusian Popular Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_Popular_Front) campaigned for early elections later in the year, two years before they were scheduled.[138](../../138/ "tree and pragmatics") By May of that year, about 383,000 signatures had been collected for a petition to hold the referendum, which was 23,000 more than legally required to be put to a referendum at the time.[139](../../139/ "tree and pragmatics") Despite this, the meeting of the [Supreme Council of the Republic of Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Council_of_the_Republic_of_Belarus) to ultimately decide the date for the referendum was delayed by six months.[140](../../140/ "tree and pragmatics") However, with no evidence to suggest such, the Supreme Council rejected the petition on the grounds of massive irregularities.[141](../../141/ "tree and pragmatics") Elections for the Supreme Council were set for March 1994.[142](../../142/ "tree and pragmatics") A new law on parliamentary elections failed to pass by 1993.[143](../../143/ "tree and pragmatics") Disputes over the referendum were accredited to the largely conservative [Party of Belarusian Communists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_of_Belarusian_Communists), which controlled the Supreme Council at the time and was largely opposed to political and economic reform, with allegations that some of the deputies opposed Belarusian independence.[\[93\]](../../page/5/#ref-93 "note 93")[144](../../144/ "tree and pragmatics") ### Lukashenko era A national constitution was adopted in March 1994 in which the functions of prime minister were given to the [President of Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Belarus).[145](../../145/ "tree and pragmatics") A two-round [election for the presidency on 24 June 1994 and 10 July 1994](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_Belarusian_presidential_election)[\[28\]](../../page/5/#ref-28 "note 28") catapulted the formerly unknown Alexander Lukashenko into national prominence.[146](../../146/ "tree and pragmatics") He garnered 45% of the vote in the first round and 80%[\[90\]](../../page/5/#ref-90 "note 90") in the second, defeating [Vyacheslav Kebich](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyacheslav_Kebich) who received 14% of the vote.[147](../../147/ "tree and pragmatics") The elections were the first and only free elections in Belarus after independence.[\[94\]](../../page/5/#ref-94 "note 94")[148](../../148/ "tree and pragmatics") The 2000s saw some economic disputes between Belarus and its primary economic partner, Russia.[149](../../149/ "tree and pragmatics") The first one was the [2004 Russia–Belarus energy dispute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Russia–Belarus_energy_dispute) when Russian energy giant [Gazprom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazprom) ceased the import of gas into Belarus because of price disagreements.[150](../../150/ "tree and pragmatics") The [2007 Russia–Belarus energy dispute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_Russia–Belarus_energy_dispute) centred on accusations by Gazprom that Belarus was siphoning oil from the [Druzhba pipeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druzhba_pipeline) that runs through Belarus.[151](../../151/ "tree and pragmatics") Two years later the so-called [Milk War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk_War), a trade dispute, started when Russia wanted Belarus to recognise the independence of [Abkhazia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abkhazia) [corpus](../../../Abkhazia/ "in our corpus") and [South Ossetia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Ossetia) [corpus](../../../South_Ossetia/ "in our corpus") and through a series of events ended up banning the import of dairy products from Belarus.[152](../../152/ "tree and pragmatics") In 2011, Belarus suffered [a severe economic crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Belarus#Crisis_of_2011) attributed to Lukashenko's government's centralised control of the economy, with inflation reaching 108.7%.[\[95\]](../../page/5/#ref-95 "note 95")[153](../../153/ "tree and pragmatics") Around the same time the [2011 Minsk Metro bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Minsk_Metro_bombing) occurred in which 15 people were killed and 204 were injured.[154](../../154/ "tree and pragmatics") Two suspects, who were arrested within two days, confessed to being the perpetrators and were executed by shooting in 2012.[155](../../155/ "tree and pragmatics") The official version of events as publicised by the Belarusian government was questioned in the unprecedented wording of the [UN Security Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UN_Security_Council) statement condemning "the apparent terrorist attack" intimating the possibility that the Belarusian government itself was behind the bombing.[\[96\]](../../page/5/#ref-96 "note 96")[156](../../156/ "tree and pragmatics") [Mass protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020–2021_Belarusian_protests) erupted across the country following the disputed [2020 Belarusian presidential election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Belarusian_presidential_election),[\[97\]](../../page/5/#ref-97 "note 97") in which Lukashenko sought a sixth term in office.[\[98\]](../../page/5/#ref-98 "note 98")[157](../../157/ "tree and pragmatics") Neighbouring countries Poland and Lithuania do not recognise Lukashenko as the legitimate president of Belarus and the Lithuanian government has allotted a residence for main opposition candidate [Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sviatlana_Tsikhanouskaya) and other members of the Belarusian opposition in [Vilnius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius) [corpus](../../../Vilnius/ "in our corpus").[\[99\]](../../page/5/#ref-99 "note 99")[\[100\]](../../page/5/#ref-100 "note 100")[\[101\]](../../page/5/#ref-101 "note 101")[\[102\]](../../page/5/#ref-102 "note 102")[\[103\]](../../page/5/#ref-103 "note 103")[158](../../158/ "tree and pragmatics") Neither is Lukashenko recognised as the legitimate president of Belarus by the European Union, Canada, the United Kingdom or the United States.[\[104\]](../../page/5/#ref-104 "note 104")[\[105\]](../../page/5/#ref-105 "note 105")[\[106\]](../../page/5/#ref-106 "note 106")[\[107\]](../../page/5/#ref-107 "note 107")[159](../../159/ "tree and pragmatics") The European Union, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States have all imposed sanctions against Belarus because of the rigged election and political oppression during the ongoing protests in the country.[\[108\]](../../page/5/#ref-108 "note 108")[\[109\]](../../page/5/#ref-109 "note 109")[160](../../160/ "tree and pragmatics") [Further sanctions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) were imposed in 2022 following the [country's role and complicity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) in the [2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine); Russian troops were allowed to stage part of the invasion from Belarusian territory.[\[110\]](../../page/5/#ref-110 "note 110")[\[111\]](../../page/5/#ref-111 "note 111")[161](../../161/ "tree and pragmatics") Sanctions were targeted towards not only corporate offices and individual officers of government, but also private individuals who work in the [state-owned enterprise](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State-owned_enterprise) industrial sector.[\[112\]](../../page/5/#ref-112 "note 112")[162](../../162/ "tree and pragmatics") [Norway](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway) [corpus](../../../Norway/ "in our corpus") and [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan) [corpus](../../../Japan/ "in our corpus") have joined the sanctions regime which aims to isolate Belarus from the international supply chain.[163](../../163/ "tree and pragmatics") Most major Belarusian banks are also under restrictions.[\[112\]](../../page/5/#ref-112 "note 112")[164](../../164/ "tree and pragmatics") [1](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Belarus/) **2** [3](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Belarus/page/3/) [4](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Belarus/page/4/) [5](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Belarus/page/5/) - ← previous: [page 1](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Belarus/) - next →: [page 3](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Belarus/page/3/) - ↑ back to [English Wikipedia](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/)