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title: Cuba — English Wikipedia · full text with trees · page 7
description: Wikipedia's «Cuba», whole, every sentence with its dependency tree and pragmatics, CC BY-SA 4.0. It begins: Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is an island country in the Caribbean.
---

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# Cuba · page 7

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From Wikipedia, [«Cuba»](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba), revision of the 2026-09-01 dump, [CC BY-SA 4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). The trees and pragmatics of these pages, Mova's parse of that text, are CC BY-SA 4.0 too.

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[1](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Cuba/) … [6](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Cuba/page/6/) **7**

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Cuba has the highest doctor-to-population ratio in the world and has sent thousands of doctors to more than 40 countries around the world.[\[421\]](../../page/7/#ref-421 "note 421")[577](../../577/ "tree and pragmatics") According to the [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization), Cuba is "known the world over for its ability to train excellent doctors and nurses who can then go out to help other countries in need".[\[422\]](../../page/7/#ref-422 "note 422")[578](../../578/ "tree and pragmatics") In 2014 there were around 50,000 Cuban-trained health care workers aiding 66 nations.[\[423\]](../../page/7/#ref-423 "note 423")[579](../../579/ "tree and pragmatics") Cuban physicians have played a leading role in combating the [Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebola_virus_epidemic_in_West_Africa).[\[424\]](../../page/7/#ref-424 "note 424")[580](../../580/ "tree and pragmatics") [Preventative medicine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventative_medicine) is very important within the Cuban medical system, which provides citizens with easy to obtain regular health checks.[\[30\]](../../page/7/#ref-30 "note 30")[581](../../581/ "tree and pragmatics")

Import and export of [pharmaceutical drugs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug) is done by the Quimefa Pharmaceutical Business Group (FARMACUBA) under the Ministry of Basic Industry.[582](../../582/ "tree and pragmatics") This group also provides technical information for the production of these drugs.[\[425\]](../../page/7/#ref-425 "note 425")[583](../../583/ "tree and pragmatics") Isolated from the West by the US embargo, Cuba developed the successful lung cancer vaccine, [Cimavax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CimaVax-EGF), which is now available to US researchers for the first time, along with other novel Cuban cancer treatments.[584](../../584/ "tree and pragmatics") The vaccine has been available for free to the Cuban population since 2011.[\[426\]](../../page/7/#ref-426 "note 426")[585](../../585/ "tree and pragmatics") According to [Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roswell_Park_Comprehensive_Cancer_Center) CEO Candace Johnson: "They've had to do more with less, so they've had to be even more innovative with how they approach things.[586](../../586/ "tree and pragmatics") For over 40 years, they have had a preeminent immunology community."[\[427\]](../../page/7/#ref-427 "note 427")[587](../../587/ "tree and pragmatics") During the thaw in Cuba–U.S. relations, many U.S. lung cancer patients traveled to Cuba to receive vaccine treatment.[588](../../588/ "tree and pragmatics") The end of the thaw under the Trump Administration resulted in a tightening of travel restrictions, making it harder for U.S. citizens to travel to Cuba for treatment.[\[428\]](../../page/7/#ref-428 "note 428")[589](../../589/ "tree and pragmatics")

In 2015, Cuba became the first country to eradicate [mother-to-child transmission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother-to-child_transmission) of HIV and syphilis,[\[429\]](../../page/7/#ref-429 "note 429") a milestone hailed by the [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization) as "one of the greatest public health achievements possible".[\[430\]](../../page/7/#ref-430 "note 430")[590](../../590/ "tree and pragmatics")

## Culture

[Cuban culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Cuba) is influenced by its melting pot of cultures, primarily those of [Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Spain), West Africa, and the indigenous [Guanahatabey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanahatabey) and Taíno.[591](../../591/ "tree and pragmatics") After the 1959 revolution, the government started a national literacy campaign, offered free education to all and established rigorous [sports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport_in_Cuba), ballet, and music programs.[\[431\]](../../page/7/#ref-431 "note 431")[592](../../592/ "tree and pragmatics")

### Architecture

[Cuban architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Cuba) reflects a range of historical influences, with its foundations rooted primarily in the Spanish colonial period.[593](../../593/ "tree and pragmatics") Early settlements, or villas, were typically organized around a central church, surrounded by residential structures.[594](../../594/ "tree and pragmatics") These homes often featured interior courtyards and iron grilles, a characteristic element of colonial domestic architecture.[595](../../595/ "tree and pragmatics") Spanish [Baroque architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque_architecture) played a significant role during this era, exemplified by religious buildings such as the [Basílica de San Francisco](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Francisco_de_Asís,_Havana) in Havana.[596](../../596/ "tree and pragmatics") In response to the threat of piracy, large fortifications were also constructed, contributing to the island's defensive infrastructure.[597](../../597/ "tree and pragmatics")

Several historic urban centers developed during the colonial period, many of which have been recognized for their architectural and cultural value.[598](../../598/ "tree and pragmatics") Notable examples include Havana, [Camagüey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camagüey), [Cienfuegos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cienfuegos) and [Trinidad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidad,_Cuba), all of which are inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[599](../../599/ "tree and pragmatics") These cities display a variety of architectural styles, ranging from Baroque and [Neoclassical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture) to [eclectic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eclecticism) influences.[600](../../600/ "tree and pragmatics") Additional towns such as [Santiago de Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_de_Cuba), [Matanzas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matanzas) or [Remedios](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remedios,_Cuba) also preserve significant colonial-era architecture.[601](../../601/ "tree and pragmatics")

During the Republican period (1902–1959), Cuban architecture saw the construction of prominent public and commercial buildings.[602](../../602/ "tree and pragmatics") Notable examples include [El Capitolio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Capitol_of_Cuba), inspired by the [United States Capitol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Capitol), as well as modern high-rise structures such as the [FOCSA Building](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FOCSA_Building) and the [Habana Hilton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryp_Habana_Libre) (later renamed Habana Libre).[603](../../603/ "tree and pragmatics") Architect [Antonio Quintana Simonetti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Quintana_Simonetti) emerged as a leading figure during the mid-20th century, contributing to the development of modern Cuban architecture.[604](../../604/ "tree and pragmatics")

Following revolution, architectural styles were heavily influenced by Soviet urban planning, emphasizing functionality, uniformity, and efficiency.[605](../../605/ "tree and pragmatics") Residential neighborhoods constructed during this period reflected the characteristics of socialist realism seen in cities like [Moscow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow) [corpus](../../../Moscow/ "in our corpus") and [Minsk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minsk) [corpus](../../../Minsk/ "in our corpus").[606](../../606/ "tree and pragmatics") After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, architecture became more varied.[607](../../607/ "tree and pragmatics") The 1990s and early 21st century saw a rise in the construction of luxury hotels, incorporating modern materials such as glass and steel, and reflecting global architectural trends similar to those found in cities like [Mexico City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico_City) [corpus](../../../Mexico_City/ "in our corpus"), [Caracas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caracas) [corpus](../../../Caracas/ "in our corpus"), and [New York](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City).[608](../../608/ "tree and pragmatics")

### Literature

[Cuban literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_literature) began to find its voice in the early 19th century.[609](../../609/ "tree and pragmatics") Dominant themes of independence and freedom were exemplified by José Martí, who led the Modernist movement in Cuban literature.[610](../../610/ "tree and pragmatics") Writers such as [Nicolás Guillén](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolás_Guillén) and José Z.[611](../../611/ "tree and pragmatics") Tallet focused on literature as social protest.[612](../../612/ "tree and pragmatics") The poetry and novels of [Dulce María Loynaz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dulce_María_Loynaz) and [José Lezama Lima](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_Lezama_Lima) have been influential.[613](../../613/ "tree and pragmatics") Romanticist [Miguel Barnet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miguel_Barnet), who wrote Everyone Dreamed of Cuba, reflects a more melancholy Cuba.[\[432\]](../../page/7/#ref-432 "note 432")[614](../../614/ "tree and pragmatics")

[Alejo Carpentier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alejo_Carpentier) was important in the [magic realism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_realism) movement.[615](../../615/ "tree and pragmatics") Writers such as [Reinaldo Arenas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinaldo_Arenas), [Guillermo Cabrera Infante](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillermo_Cabrera_Infante), and [Daína Chaviano](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daína_Chaviano), [Pedro Juan Gutiérrez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Juan_Gutiérrez), [Zoé Valdés](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoé_Valdés), [Guillermo Rosales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillermo_Rosales) and [Leonardo Padura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_Padura) have earned international recognition in the post-revolutionary era, though many of these have felt compelled to continue their work in exile due to ideological control of media by the Cuban authorities.[616](../../616/ "tree and pragmatics") However, some Cuban writers continue living and writing in Cuba, including Nancy Morejón.[\[433\]](../../page/7/#ref-433 "note 433")[617](../../617/ "tree and pragmatics")

### Music

[Cuban music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Cuba) is rich and is the most commonly known expression of Cuban culture.[618](../../618/ "tree and pragmatics") The central form of this music is [son](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Son_cubano), which has been the basis of many other musical styles like "[Danzón](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danzón) de nuevo ritmo", [mambo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mambo_%28music%29), [cha-cha-chá](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cha-cha-chá_%28music%29) and [salsa music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salsa_music).[619](../../619/ "tree and pragmatics") Rumba ("de cajón o de solar") music originated in the early Afro-Cuban culture, mixed with Spanish elements of style.[\[434\]](../../page/7/#ref-434 "note 434")[620](../../620/ "tree and pragmatics") The [tres](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tres_%28instrument%29) was invented in Cuba from Spanish cordophone instruments models (the instrument is actually a fusion of elements from the Spanish guitar and lute).[621](../../621/ "tree and pragmatics") Other traditional Cuban instruments are of African origin, Taíno origin, or both, such as the [maracas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maraca), [güiro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Güiro), [marímbula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marímbula) and various wooden drums including the [mayohuacán](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayohuacán).[622](../../622/ "tree and pragmatics")

Popular Cuban music of all styles has been enjoyed and praised widely across the world.[623](../../623/ "tree and pragmatics") Cuban classical music, which includes music with strong African and European influences, and features symphonic works as well as music for soloists, has received international acclaim thanks to composers like [Ernesto Lecuona](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Lecuona).[624](../../624/ "tree and pragmatics") Havana was the heart of the [rap](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rap) scene in Cuba when it began in the 1990s.[625](../../625/ "tree and pragmatics")

### Dance

<!-- .mk -->
Main article: [Dance from Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dance_from_Cuba)

The culture encompasses a wide range of dance forms.[\[435\]](../../page/7/#ref-435 "note 435")[626](../../626/ "tree and pragmatics") Danzón was the official musical genre and dance of Cuba.[\[436\]](../../page/7/#ref-436 "note 436")[627](../../627/ "tree and pragmatics") Mambo music and dance developed originally in Cuba, with further significant developments by Cuban musicians in Mexico and the US.[628](../../628/ "tree and pragmatics") The [cha-cha-cha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cha-cha-cha_%28dance%29) is another dance of Cuban origin,[\[437\]](../../page/7/#ref-437 "note 437") while the Cuban [bolero](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolero) originated in Santiago de Cuba in the 19th century.[\[438\]](../../page/7/#ref-438 "note 438")[629](../../629/ "tree and pragmatics") [Concert dance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concert_dance) is supported by the government and includes internationally renowned companies such as the [Ballet Nacional de Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballet_Nacional_de_Cuba).[\[439\]](../../page/7/#ref-439 "note 439")[630](../../630/ "tree and pragmatics") [Salsa dancing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salsa_%28dance%29) originated in Cuba, and [Cuban salsa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_salsa) is danced around the world.[631](../../631/ "tree and pragmatics")

### Media

<!-- .mk -->
Main article: [Mass media in Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media_in_Cuba)

[ETECSA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETECSA) opened 118 cybercafes across the country in 2013.[\[440\]](../../page/7/#ref-440 "note 440")[632](../../632/ "tree and pragmatics") The government of Cuba provides an online encyclopedia website called [EcuRed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EcuRed) that operates in a "[wiki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiki)" format.[\[441\]](../../page/7/#ref-441 "note 441")[633](../../633/ "tree and pragmatics") Internet access is controlled, and e-mail is closely monitored.[\[442\]](../../page/7/#ref-442 "note 442")[634](../../634/ "tree and pragmatics")

Since 2018, access to Internet by mobile data is available.[635](../../635/ "tree and pragmatics") In 2019, 7.1 million Cubans could access the Internet.[\[443\]](../../page/7/#ref-443 "note 443")[636](../../636/ "tree and pragmatics") The prices of connections, since WiFi zones, or mobile data, or from houses through "Nauta Hogar" service have been decreasing, especially since the economic reform of January 2021, when all the salaries increased by at least 5 times, and the prices of Internet remain in the same point.[\[444\]](../../page/7/#ref-444 "note 444")[\[445\]](../../page/7/#ref-445 "note 445")[637](../../637/ "tree and pragmatics") In 2024, it was reported that 8.19 million Cuban people have Internet access.[\[446\]](../../page/7/#ref-446 "note 446")[638](../../638/ "tree and pragmatics") There were 6.68 million mobile connections in Cuba in January 2021.[\[446\]](../../page/7/#ref-446 "note 446")[639](../../639/ "tree and pragmatics")

### Cuisine

[Cuban cuisine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_cuisine) is a fusion of [Spanish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_cuisine) and [Caribbean cuisines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean_cuisine).[640](../../640/ "tree and pragmatics") Cuban recipes share spices and techniques with Spanish cooking, with some Caribbean influence in spice and flavor.[641](../../641/ "tree and pragmatics") Food rationing, which has been the norm for the last four decades, restricts the common availability of these dishes.[\[447\]](../../page/7/#ref-447 "note 447")[642](../../642/ "tree and pragmatics") The traditional meal is not served in courses; all food items are served at the same time.[643](../../643/ "tree and pragmatics")

The typical meal could consist of plantains, black beans and rice, [ropa vieja](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ropa_vieja) (shredded beef), [Cuban bread](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_bread), pork with onions, and tropical fruits.[644](../../644/ "tree and pragmatics") Black beans and rice, referred to as [moros y cristianos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moros_y_Cristianos_%28food%29) (or moros for short), and plantains are staples.[645](../../645/ "tree and pragmatics") Many of the meat dishes are cooked slowly with light sauces.[646](../../646/ "tree and pragmatics") Garlic, cumin, oregano, and bay leaves are the dominant spices.[647](../../647/ "tree and pragmatics")

### Sports

<!-- .mk -->
Main article: [Sport in Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport_in_Cuba)

Due to historical associations with the United States, many Cubans participate in sports that are popular in North America, rather than sports traditionally played in other Latin American nations.[648](../../648/ "tree and pragmatics") [Baseball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball_in_Cuba) is the most popular.[649](../../649/ "tree and pragmatics") Other popular sports include volleyball, [boxing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxing), [athletics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport_of_athletics), [wrestling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrestling), basketball and [water sports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_sports).[\[448\]](../../page/7/#ref-448 "note 448")[650](../../650/ "tree and pragmatics") Cuba is a dominant force in [amateur boxing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_boxing), consistently achieving high medal tallies in major international competitions.[651](../../651/ "tree and pragmatics") Boxers [Rances Barthelemy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rances_Barthelemy) and [Erislandy Lara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erislandy_Lara) defected to the U.S. and Mexico respectively.[\[449\]](../../page/7/#ref-449 "note 449")[\[450\]](../../page/7/#ref-450 "note 450")[652](../../652/ "tree and pragmatics") Cuba also provides a [national team](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba_at_the_Olympics) that competes in the [Olympic Games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_Games).[\[451\]](../../page/7/#ref-451 "note 451")[653](../../653/ "tree and pragmatics") [Jose R. Capablanca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jose_R._Capablanca) was a Cuban [world chess champion from 1921 to 1927](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Chess_Championship#Capablanca,_Alekhine_and_Euwe_%281921–1946%29).[654](../../654/ "tree and pragmatics")

## See also

<!-- .mk -->
[Human rights in Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_Cuba)

<!-- .mk -->
[List of Caribbean islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Caribbean_islands)

<!-- .mk -->
[Outline of Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Cuba)

<!-- .mk -->
[The Cuba Libre Story](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cuba_Libre_Story)

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- Gleijeses, Piero (2010). "[717](../../717/ "tree and pragmatics") In Melvyn P. Leffler & Odd Arne Westad, eds., The Cambridge History of the Cold War, Volume II: Crises and Détente".[718](../../718/ "tree and pragmatics") [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press).[719](../../719/ "tree and pragmatics")
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- McAlister, Lyle N.[726](../../726/ "tree and pragmatics") (1984). "[727](../../727/ "tree and pragmatics") [Spain and Portugal in the New World, 1492–1700](https://archive.org/details/spainportugalinn0000mcal)".[728](../../728/ "tree and pragmatics") [University of Minnesota Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Minnesota_Press).[729](../../729/ "tree and pragmatics")
- Pedraza, Silvia (2007). "[730](../../730/ "tree and pragmatics") Political Disaffection in Cuba's Revolution and Exodus".[731](../../731/ "tree and pragmatics") [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press).[732](../../732/ "tree and pragmatics")
- Ramazani, Rouhollah K. (1975). "[733](../../733/ "tree and pragmatics") The Persian Gulf and the Strait of Hormuz".[734](../../734/ "tree and pragmatics") Sijthoff & Noordhoff.[735](../../735/ "tree and pragmatics")
- Roy, Joaquín (2000). "[736](../../736/ "tree and pragmatics") Cuba, the United States, and the Helms-Burton Doctrine: International Reactions".[737](../../737/ "tree and pragmatics") [University of Florida Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Florida_Press).[738](../../738/ "tree and pragmatics")
- Scheina, Robert L. (2003). "[739](../../739/ "tree and pragmatics") Latin America's Wars, Volume I: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899".[740](../../740/ "tree and pragmatics") Brassey's.[741](../../741/ "tree and pragmatics")
- Scheina, Robert L. (2003b). "[742](../../742/ "tree and pragmatics") Latin America's Wars Volume II: The Age of the Professional Soldier, 1900-2001".[743](../../743/ "tree and pragmatics")
- Scott, Rebecca J. (2000). "[744](../../744/ "tree and pragmatics") Slave Emancipation in Cuba: The Transition to Free Labor, 1860–1899".[745](../../745/ "tree and pragmatics") [University of Pittsburgh Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh_Press).[746](../../746/ "tree and pragmatics")
- Smith, Wayne S. (1996). "[747](../../747/ "tree and pragmatics") Cuba's Long Reform".[748](../../748/ "tree and pragmatics") [Foreign Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Affairs).[749](../../749/ "tree and pragmatics")
- Smith, Kirby; Llorens, Hugo (1998). "[750](../../750/ "tree and pragmatics") Cuba in Transition, Volume 8".[751](../../751/ "tree and pragmatics") ASCE.[752](../../752/ "tree and pragmatics")
- Sweig, Julia E. (2004). "[753](../../753/ "tree and pragmatics") [Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground](https://archive.org/details/insidecubanrevol00juli)".[754](../../754/ "tree and pragmatics") [Harvard University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University_Press).[755](../../755/ "tree and pragmatics")
- Thomas, Hugh (1998). "[756](../../756/ "tree and pragmatics") Cuba; or, The Pursuit of Freedom".[757](../../757/ "tree and pragmatics") [Da Capo Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da_Capo_Press).[758](../../758/ "tree and pragmatics")
- Westad, Odd Arne (2012). "[759](../../759/ "tree and pragmatics") Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750".[760](../../760/ "tree and pragmatics") [The Bodley Head](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bodley_Head).[761](../../761/ "tree and pragmatics")
- Whiteford, Linda M.; Branch, Laurence G. (2008). "[762](../../762/ "tree and pragmatics") Primary Health Care in Cuba: The Other Revolution".[763](../../763/ "tree and pragmatics") [Rowman & Littlefield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowman_&_Littlefield).[764](../../764/ "tree and pragmatics")
- Wright, Irene Aloha (1916). "[765](../../765/ "tree and pragmatics") [The Early History of Cuba, 1492–1586](https://openlibrary.org/works/OL143127W/The_early_history_of_Cuba_1492-1586)".[766](../../766/ "tree and pragmatics") [The Macmillan Company](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers).[767](../../767/ "tree and pragmatics")

## External links

<!-- .mk -->
[Official site of the Government of Cuba](https://cubaminrex.cu/en)

<!-- .mk -->
[Cuba](https://web.archive.org/web/20080830044824/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/cuba.htm) from [University of Colorado Boulder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Colorado_Boulder) Libraries

<!-- .mk -->
[Key Development Forecasts for Cuba](https://www.ifs.du.edu/IFs/frm_CountryProfile/CU) from [International Futures](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Futures)

<!-- /div -->

<!-- pager -->
[1](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Cuba/) … [6](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Cuba/page/6/) **7**

## References {#references}

<!-- .ref id=ref-1 -->
1\. Data represents racial self-identification from Cuba's 2012 national census.

<!-- .ref id=ref-2 -->
2\. "[Central America:: Cuba – The World Factbook](https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cuba/)". Central Intelligence Agency.

<!-- .ref id=ref-3 -->
3\. The most powerful political position is [First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_Cuba), not [President](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Cuba). The first secretary controls the [Politburo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_Cuba) and the [Secretariat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Communist_Party_of_Cuba), Cuba's top decision-making bodies, making the officeholder *de facto* leader of Cuba.

<!-- .ref id=ref-4 -->
4\. "[Cuba](https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cuba/#geography)". Central Intelligence Agency. 20 February 2023.

<!-- .ref id=ref-5 -->
5\. "[Indicadores Demográficos por provincias y municipios 2022](http://www.onei.gob.cu/node/13815)". Oficina Nacional de Estadística e Information República de Cuba.

<!-- .ref id=ref-6 -->
6\. "[World Bank GDP PPP 2015, 28 April 2017 PDF](https://archive.org/details/GDPPPP1)".

<!-- .ref id=ref-7 -->
7\. "[World Bank total population of Cuba in 2015 (GDP PPP divided by Population data)](https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=2015&locations=CU&start=1960)".

<!-- .ref id=ref-8 -->
8\. "[Basic Data Selection](https://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama/Basic)". United Nations.

<!-- .ref id=ref-9 -->
9\. Frank, Marc (10 April 2008). "[Cuba grapples with growing inequality](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cuba-reform-inequality-idUSN1033501920080410)". *[Reuters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters)*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-10 -->
10\. "[Human Development Report 2023/24](https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf)". [United Nations Development Programme](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme). 13 March 2024.

<!-- .ref id=ref-11 -->
11\. /ˈkjuːbə/ *KEW-bə*, ˈkuβa

<!-- .ref id=ref-12 -->
12\. *República de Cuba* reˈpuβlika ðe ˈkuβa

<!-- .ref id=ref-13 -->
13\. Rangel, Carlos (1977). "The Latin Americans: Their Love-Hate Relationship with the United States". [Harcourt Brace Jovanovich](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harcourt_Brace_Jovanovich). Skidmore, Thomas E. (2005). "[Modern Latin America](https://archive.org/details/modernlatinameri0006skid/page/1)". [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press).

<!-- .ref id=ref-14 -->
14\. Lalueza-Fox, Carles; Gilbert, M. Thomas P.; Martínez-Fuentes, Antonio J.; Calafell, Francesc; Bertranpetit, Jaume (2003). "Mitochondrial DNA from Pre-Columbian Ciboneys from Cuba and the Prehistoric Colonization of the Caribbean". *American Journal of Physical Anthropology*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-15 -->
15\. Mendizabal, Isabel; Sandoval, Karla; Berniell-Lee, Gemma; Calafell, Francesc; Salas, Antonio; Martínez-Fuentes, Antonio; Comas, David (2008). "Genetic origin, admixture, and asymmetry in maternal and paternal human lineages in Cuba". *BMC Evolutionary Biology*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-16 -->
16\. Pérez Jr., Louis A. (2006). "Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution". Oxford University Press.

<!-- .ref id=ref-17 -->
17\. Klein, Herbert S. (2010). "The Atlantic Slave Trade". Cambridge University Press.

<!-- .ref id=ref-18 -->
18\. Levitsky, Steven; Way, Lucan A. (16 August 2010). "[Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War](https://books.google.com/books?id=NZDI05p1PDgC&pg=PA361)". [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press).

<!-- .ref id=ref-19 -->
19\. Lachapelle, Jean; Levitsky, Steven; Way, Lucan A.; Casey, Adam E. (October 2020). "Social Revolution and Authoritarian Durability". *World Politics*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-20 -->
20\. Stein, Elizabeth Ann (2016). "Information and Civil Unrest in Dictatorships". *Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-21 -->
21\. "[Six facts about censorship in Cuba](https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2016/03/six-facts-about-censorship-in-cuba/)". Amnesty International. 11 March 2016.

<!-- .ref id=ref-22 -->
22\. "[2015 World Press Freedom Index](http://index.rsf.org/#!/index-details/CUB)". *Reporters Without Borders*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-23 -->
23\. "[Press Freedom Index 2008](http://www.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/cl_en_2008.pdf)". Reporters Without Borders. 2008.

<!-- .ref id=ref-24 -->
24\. "[US rejects Cuba demand to hand back Guantanamo Bay base](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-31059030)". *BBC News*. 30 January 2015.

<!-- .ref id=ref-25 -->
25\. "[Landmine Monitor Report 2000: Cuba](https://www.hrw.org/reports/2000/landmines/LMWeb-14.htm)". [Human Rights Watch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch).

<!-- .ref id=ref-26 -->
26\. "[Pre-Castro Cuba \| American Experience](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/comandante-pre-castro-cuba/)". PBS.

<!-- .ref id=ref-27 -->
27\. Greenberg, Jon (24 February 2020). "[Fact-checking Bernie Sanders' claim on Cuba literacy under Castro](https://www.politifact.com/factchecks/2020/feb/24/bernie-sanders/sanders-correct-cuba-literacy-campaign-skimps-prop/)". *[PolitiFact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PolitiFact)*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-28 -->
28\. Cabello, Juan José (2012). "An approach to sustainable development: the case of Cuba". *Environment, Development and Sustainability*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-29 -->
29\. Geloso, Vincent; Pavlik, Jamie Bologna (April 2021). "The Cuban revolution and infant mortality: A synthetic control approach". *Explorations in Economic History*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-30 -->
30\. Kessler, Glenn (1 December 2016). "[Justin Trudeau's claim that Castro made 'significant improvements' to Cuban health care and education](https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker/wp/2016/12/01/justin-trudeaus-claim-that-castro-made-significant-improvements-to-cuban-health-care-and-education/)". *[The Washington Post](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post)*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-31 -->
31\. Editorial (16 May 2015). "[Be more libre](https://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21651216-transformation-economy-needs-happen-much-faster-be-more-libre)". *The Economist*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-32 -->
32\. The Committee Office, House of Commons (28 March 2001). "[Cuban Health Care Systems and its implications for the NHS Plan](http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200001/cmselect/cmhealth/30/30ap91.htm)". Select Committee on Health.

<!-- .ref id=ref-33 -->
33\. "[The State of Social Rights in Cuba: VI Report 2023](https://derechossocialescuba.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/ODS6_EN.pdf)". Observatorio Cubano de Derechos Humanos (OCDH). 2023.

<!-- .ref id=ref-34 -->
34\. "[Cuba begins releasing prisoners under scrutiny of rights groups, US government](https://www.jpost.com/international/article-892006)". *[The Jerusalem Post](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jerusalem_Post)*. 2026-04-03.

<!-- .ref id=ref-35 -->
35\. "[Un informe de la ONU señala que los cubanos de 14 a 60 años sufren de malnutrición](https://www.14ymedio.com/cuba/informe-ONU-senala-cubanos-malnutricion_0_3508449125.html)". *14ymedio*. 5 April 2023.

<!-- .ref id=ref-36 -->
36\. Padinger, Germán (9 November 2021). "[En qué consiste el embargo comercial de Estados Unidos sobre Cuba](https://cnnespanol.cnn.com/2021/11/09/embargo-eeuu-cuba-afectado-economia-isla-orix/)". CNN.

<!-- .ref id=ref-37 -->
37\. "[Cuba – Cultural institutions \| history – geography](https://www.britannica.com/place/Cuba/Cultural-institutions#toc129488)". *Encyclopædia Britannica*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-38 -->
38\. "[Alfred Carrada – The Dictionary of the Taino Language](http://www.alfredcarrada.org/notes8.html)". *alfredcarrada.org*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-39 -->
39\. Mascarenhas Barreto, Augusto (1988). "O Português. Cristóvão Colombo Agente Secreto do Rei Dom João II". Referendo.

<!-- .ref id=ref-40 -->
40\. da Silva, Manuel; da Silva, Silvia Jorge (2008). "[Christopher Columbus was Portuguese](https://archive.org/details/christophercolum0000silv)". Express Printing.

<!-- .ref id=ref-41 -->
41\. Szászdi, Adám; Szászdi, István (2007). "[Orbis Incognitvs. Avisos y Legajos del Nuevo Mundo](http://www.americanistas.es/biblo/textos/c12/c12-025.pdf)". Universidad de Huelva.

<!-- .ref id=ref-42 -->
42\. Fernandes, Daniel M.; Sirak, Kendra A.; Ringbauer, Harald; Sedig, Jakob; Rohland, Nadin; Cheronet, Olivia; Mah, Matthew; Mallick, Swapan; Olalde, Iñigo (4 February 2021). "A genetic history of the pre-contact Caribbean". *Nature*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-43 -->
43\. Orihuela, Johanset; Viñola, Lázaro W.; Jiménez Vázquez, Osvaldo; Mychajliw, Alexis M.; Hernández de Lara, Odlanyer; Lorenzo, Logel; Soto-Centeno, J. Angel (December 2020). "Assessing the role of humans in Greater Antillean land vertebrate extinctions: New insights from Cuba". *Quaternary Science Reviews*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-44 -->
44\. "[Tobacco: From Miracle Cure to Deadly Toxin](https://archive-yaleglobal.yale.edu/tobacco-miracle-cure-toxin)". *YaleGlobal Online*. Yale University.

<!-- .ref id=ref-45 -->
45\. Keegan, William F.; Hofman, Corinne L. (2017). "The Caribbean before Columbus".

<!-- .ref id=ref-46 -->
46\. Roksandic, Ivan (2016). "Cuban Archaeology in the Caribbean".

<!-- .ref id=ref-47 -->
47\. Cuba Oficina Del Censo (2009). "[Cuba: Population, History and Resources 1907](https://books.google.com/books?id=E0iIQ1nxJB4C)". BiblioBazaar, LLC. (gives the landing date in Cuba as 28 October)

<!-- .ref id=ref-48 -->
48\. Gott 2004, p. 13

<!-- .ref id=ref-49 -->
49\. Andrea, Alfred J.; Overfield, James H. (2005). "The Human Record". [Houghton Mifflin Company](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Company).

<!-- .ref id=ref-50 -->
50\. "[Encomienda or Slavery? The Spanish Crown's Choice of Labor Organization in Sixteenth-Century Spanish America](http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/colonial/encomienda-slavery.pdf)". *LatinAmericanStudies.org*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-51 -->
51\. McAlister 1984, p. 164

<!-- .ref id=ref-52 -->
52\. Diamond, Jared M. (1998). "[Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies](https://www.pbs.org/gunsgermssteel/variables/smallpox.html)". [W.W. Norton & Co](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.W._Norton_&_Co).

<!-- .ref id=ref-53 -->
53\. Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2008). "[Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M](https://books.google.com/books?id=5Pvi-ksuKFIC&pg=PA413)". ABC-CLIO.

<!-- .ref id=ref-54 -->
54\. J. N. Hays (2005). *[Epidemics and Pandemics: Their Impacts on Human History](https://archive.org/details/epidemicspandemi0000hays/page/82)* . p.82. ISBN 1-85109-658-2

<!-- .ref id=ref-55 -->
55\. Davidson, James West. *After the Fact: The Art of Historical Detection* Volume 1. New York: McGraw Hill, 2010. Chapter 1, p. 1

<!-- .ref id=ref-56 -->
56\. Wright 1916, p. 183.

<!-- .ref id=ref-57 -->
57\. Wright 1916, p. 229.

<!-- .ref id=ref-58 -->
58\. Wright 1916, p. 246.

<!-- .ref id=ref-59 -->
59\. After the French captured Havana in 1555, the governor's son, Francisco de Angulo, went to the [Viceroyalty of New Spain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Spain).\[58\]

<!-- .ref id=ref-60 -->
60\. "[Cuba](https://www.britannica.com/place/Cuba)". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. 25 April 2023.

<!-- .ref id=ref-61 -->
61\. Ferrer, Ada (2014). "Freedom's Mirror: Cuba and Haiti in the Age of Revolution". Cambridge University Press.

<!-- .ref id=ref-62 -->
62\. Childs, Matt D. (2006). "The 1813 Aponte Rebellion in Cuba and the Struggle against Atlantic Slavery". [The University of North Carolina Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_University_of_North_Carolina_Press).

<!-- .ref id=ref-63 -->
63\. Scheina 2003, p. 352.

<!-- .ref id=ref-64 -->
64\. "The National Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge". Charles Knight. 1848.

<!-- .ref id=ref-65 -->
65\. Herbert S. Klein, *Slavery in the Americas: A Comparative Study of Virginia and Cuba*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967, p. 196

<!-- .ref id=ref-66 -->
66\. Melvin Drimmer (Apr 1968). "Reviewed Work: *Slavery in the Americas: A Comparative Study of Virginia and Cuba* by [Herbert S. Klein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_S._Klein)". *[The William and Mary Quarterly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_William_and_Mary_Quarterly)*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-67 -->
67\. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Carlos Manuel de Céspedes". Encyclopedia Britannica, 14 April 2025, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carlos-Manuel-de-Cespedes . Accessed 9 May 2025

<!-- .ref id=ref-68 -->
68\. Chomsky, Carr, Smorkaloff 2004, p. 115–117.

<!-- .ref id=ref-69 -->
69\. "[Military Records – Cuban Genealogy Club of Miami, Fl., Inc.](https://www.cubangenclub.org/databases/military/)".

<!-- .ref id=ref-70 -->
70\. Scheina 2003, p. 353.

<!-- .ref id=ref-71 -->
71\. Scheina 2003, p. 357.

<!-- .ref id=ref-72 -->
72\. According to one military historian, "The thirty-eight individuals who responded to the call for independence on 9 October 1868 had almost no military experience. They, and other Cubans, ignorant of the martial skills, were soon joined by a small band of political refugees from Santo Domingo. A number of these individuals had fought for Spain in Santo Domingo following its re-annexation (1861–65). When Spain quit Santo Domingo for the second time, some Dominican colonial officers immigrated to Cuba. Most were unable to find service in the Spanish army in Cuba. Some of these former soldiers joined the new Revolutionary army and provided its initial training and leadership."\[70\] Mercenaries from Canada, Colombia, France, Mexico, and the United States joined the Cuban Revolutionary Army. Chinese nationals, brought to Cuba as indentured servants, also fought for the cause.\[70\] By 1876, the Cuban Revolutionary movement was facing internal strife, largely driven by racial tensions. General Máximo Gómez surrendered his command after officers refused to follow his orders because he was Dominican. At the same time, the campaign against Antonio Maceo, a [mulatto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulatto) leader, grew stronger as white factions sought to undermine his leadership because of his race. These racial divisions contributed to a decline in morale within the Revolutionary Army.\[71\]

<!-- .ref id=ref-73 -->
73\. Scheina 2003, p. 364.

<!-- .ref id=ref-74 -->
74\. "[Historia de las Guerrras de Cuba](http://www.cubagenweb.org/mil/e-war-hist.htm)". *cubagenweb.org*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-75 -->
75\. "[The Little War of 1878 – History of Cuba](http://www.historyofcuba.com/history/funfacts/lilwar.htm)". *historyofcuba.com*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-76 -->
76\. Scott 2000, p. 3.

<!-- .ref id=ref-77 -->
77\. Chomsky, Carr, Smorkaloff 2004, p. 37–38.

<!-- .ref id=ref-78 -->
78\. "[Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia](https://books.google.com/books?id=L_xxOM85bD8C&pg=PP1)". ABC-CLIO. 2002.

<!-- .ref id=ref-79 -->
79\. "[Spanish-Americans: Lives And Faces](https://books.google.com/books?id=7AlqghmzQVUC&pg=PA171)". [Trafford Publishing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trafford_Publishing). 2005.

<!-- .ref id=ref-80 -->
80\. "[Of Planting and Planning: The Making of British Colonial Cities](https://books.google.com/books?id=1ovC4TylXNkC&pg=PA195)". [Chapman and Hall](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapman_and_Hall). 1997.

<!-- .ref id=ref-81 -->
81\. Murrin, John M.; Johnson, Paul E.; McPherson, James M.; Fahs, Alice; Gerstle, Gary (27 February 2013). "[Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People, Volume II: Since 1863, Concise Edition](https://books.google.com/books?id=WcMWAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA508)". [Cengage Learning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cengage_Learning).

<!-- .ref id=ref-82 -->
82\. The Spanish–American War. "[Cuban Reconcentration Policy and its Effects](http://www.spanamwar.com/proctorspeech.htm)".

<!-- .ref id=ref-83 -->
83\. Thurber, Dani. "[Research Guides: World of 1898: International Perspectives on the Spanish American War: Valeriano Weyler](https://guides.loc.gov/world-of-1898/valeriano-weyler)". *guides.loc.gov*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-84 -->
84\. "[The American Battleship](https://books.google.com/books?id=SYurkGIlgLMC&pg=PA18)". [MBI Publishing Company](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBI_Publishing_Company). 2003.

<!-- .ref id=ref-85 -->
85\. "[The USS Maine explodes in Cuba's Havana Harbor \| 15 February 1898](https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/february-15/the-maine-explodes)". *HISTORY*. 24 November 2009.

<!-- .ref id=ref-86 -->
86\. Fahey, John E. (7 February 2023). "[Why did the USS Maine explode?](https://usnhistory.navylive.dodlive.mil/Recent/Article-View/Article/3290776/why-did-the-uss-maine-explode/)". *The Sextant*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-87 -->
87\. "[Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain](http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1898.asp)". *[The Avalon Project](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Avalon_Project)*. [Yale Law School](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_Law_School). 10 December 1898.

<!-- .ref id=ref-88 -->
88\. Scheina 2003, p. 424.

<!-- .ref id=ref-89 -->
89\. "[Cuba Between Empires: 1878–1902](https://books.google.com/books?id=qRhK4vMXe1QC&pg=PR15)". [University of Pittsburgh Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh_Press). 1998.

<!-- .ref id=ref-90 -->
90\. "[Platt Amendment (1903)](https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/platt-amendment)". *National Archives*. 29 October 2025.

<!-- .ref id=ref-91 -->
91\. Diaz-Briquets, Sergio (2006). "[Corruption in Cuba: Castro and Beyond](https://books.google.com/books?id=Fiquofr8LSoC&pg=PA63)". [University of Texas Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texas_Press).

<!-- .ref id=ref-92 -->
92\. Thomas 1998, p. 283–7.

<!-- .ref id=ref-93 -->
93\. "[The War of 1898, and U.S. Interventions, 1898–1934: An Encyclopedia](https://books.google.com/books?id=48g116X9IIwC&pg=PA134)". [Garland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garland_Publishing). 1994.

<!-- .ref id=ref-94 -->
94\. "[The Last American Rebel in Cuba](https://books.google.com/books?id=NFT8Mp8VuNkC&pg=PA7)". [AuthorHouse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AuthorHouse). 24 April 2012.

<!-- .ref id=ref-95 -->
95\. "[Cuba: A Different America](https://books.google.com/books?id=9CJec-NWjS0C&pg=PA4)". [Rowman & Littlefield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowman_&_Littlefield). 1992.

<!-- .ref id=ref-96 -->
96\. Argote-Freyre, Frank (2006). "[Fulgencio Batista](https://archive.org/details/fulgenciobatista00argo/page/50)". [Rutgers University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutgers_University_Press).

<!-- .ref id=ref-97 -->
97\. Jones, Melanie (2001). "[South America, Central America and the Caribbean 2002](https://books.google.com/books?id=o9ODxqsr-dIC&pg=PA303)". [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge).

<!-- .ref id=ref-98 -->
98\. "[Cuba: From Columbus to Castro and Beyond](https://books.google.com/books?id=BHhUknsCtfIC&pg=PA95)". [Potomac Books](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potomac_Books). 2002.

<!-- .ref id=ref-99 -->
99\. Domínguez 1978, p. 76

<!-- .ref id=ref-100 -->
100\. Domínguez 1978.

<!-- .ref id=ref-101 -->
101\. "[Expansionism: Its Effects on Cuba's Independence](https://books.google.com/books?id=Jj2mIS40lAMC&pg=PA201)". [Transaction Publishers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaction_Publishers). 31 December 2011.

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102\. Horowitz 1988, p. 662

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225\. "[Country Status and ratings overview – Freedom in the World 1973–2016](https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/Country%20Status%20%26%20Ratings%20Overview%2C%201973-2016.pdf)". *[Freedom House](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_House)*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-226 -->
226\. "[Democracy Report 2025, 25 Years of Autocratization – Democracy Trumped?](https://v-dem.net/documents/54/v-dem_dr_2025_lowres_v1.pdf)".

<!-- .ref id=ref-227 -->
227\. "[Raul Castro retires but Cuban Communist Party emphasizes continuity](https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/cuban-president-diaz-canel-made-communist-party-leader-ending-castro-era-2021-04-19/)". *Reuters*. 19 April 2021.

<!-- .ref id=ref-228 -->
228\. Domínguez 1989, p. 6: "Cuba is a small country, but it has the foreign policy of a big power."

<!-- .ref id=ref-229 -->
229\. Feinsilver 1989, p. 2: "Cuba has projected disproportionately greater power and influence through military might ... through economic largesse ... as a mediator in regional conflicts, and as a forceful and persuasive advocate of Third World interests in international forums. Cuba's scientific achievements, while limited, are also being shared with other Third World countries, thereby furthering Cuban influence and prestige abroad."

<!-- .ref id=ref-230 -->
230\. Gleijeses 1996, p. 159, 161: "Cuba's relationship with Algeria in 1961–5 ... clashes with the image of Cuban foreign policy—cynical ploys of a \[Soviet\] client state—that prevails not only in the United States but also in many European capitals. ... The aid Cuba gave Algeria in 1961–2 had nothing to do with the East-West conflict. Its roots predate Castro's victory in 1959 and lie in the Cubans' widespread identification with the struggle of the Algerian people."

<!-- .ref id=ref-231 -->
231\. Gleijeses 2010, p. 327: "The dispatch of 36,000 Cuban soldiers to Angola between November 1975 and April 1976 stunned the world; ... by 1988, there were 55,000 Cuban soldiers in Angola."

<!-- .ref id=ref-232 -->
232\. Gleijeses 2002, p. 392: "After Angola, Cuba's largest military intervention was in Ethiopia, where in 1978 16,000 Cuban troops helped repulse the invading Somali army."

<!-- .ref id=ref-233 -->
233\. Gebru Tareke 2009, p. 62–3. Tareke refers here to the training given to 10 members of the [Eritrean Liberation Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eritrean_Liberation_Front) in 1968 during the [Eritrean struggle for independence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence).

<!-- .ref id=ref-234 -->
234\. Gleijeses 1997, p. 50: "On 14–16 October 1960, \[Guinean president Ahmed Sékou\] Touré went to Havana. It was the first visit of an African chief of state to Cuba. The following year Cuba's foreign aid programme to Third World governments began when fifteen students from Guinea arrived in Havana to attend the university or technical institutes."

<!-- .ref id=ref-235 -->
235\. Gleijeses 1997, p. 45: "Joining the rebellion in 1966, and remaining through the war's end in 1974, this was the longest Cuban intervention in Africa before the despatch of troops to Angola in November 1975. It was also the most successful. As the Guinean paper *Nõ Pintcha* declared, 'The Cubans' solidarity was decisive for our struggle.

<!-- .ref id=ref-236 -->
236\. Gleijeses 2002, p. 227. The Cuban contribution to the independence of Mozambique was not very important.

<!-- .ref id=ref-237 -->
237\. Ramazani 1975, p. 91.

<!-- .ref id=ref-238 -->
238\. "AP 1950 Invasion Wiped Out Says Trujillo". Waterloo Daily Courier. 24 June 1959.

<!-- .ref id=ref-239 -->
239\. "[Resistencia 1916–1966](http://www.museodelaresistencia.org/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=232)". museodelaresistencia.org.

<!-- .ref id=ref-240 -->
240\. "[Joint declarations concerning areas and modalities provisionally identified for cooperation](http://ec.europa.eu/development/icenter/repository/EU-Cuba-Joint%20declaration-261108_EN.pdf)". European Commission. 26 November 2008.

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241\. Hirst, Joel D. (2 December 2010). "[The Bolivarian Alliance of the Americas](http://www.cfr.org/venezuela/bolivarian-alliance-americas/p23585)". [cfr.org](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations).

<!-- .ref id=ref-242 -->
242\. Millman, Joel (15 January 2011). "[New Prize in Cold War: Cuban Doctors](https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970203731004576045640711118766)". *[The Wall Street Journal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal)*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-243 -->
243\. Arsenault, Chris (31 December 2012). "[Cuban doctors prescribe hope in Venezuela](http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/spotlight/venezuelaelection/2012/10/20121039242915607.html)". [Al Jazeera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Jazeera_English).; As the article discusses, the oil-for-doctors programme has not been welcomed uncritically in Venezuela. The initial impetus for Cuban doctors' going to Venezuela was a Chavez-government welfare project called *[Misión Barrio Adentro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_Barrio_Adentro)* (Albornoz 2006).

<!-- .ref id=ref-244 -->
244\. William Kelly (29 March 2022). "[Despite Cuba's important history of solidarity with Ukraine, Russia remains a key ally](https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2022/03/29/despite-cubas-important-history-solidarity-with-ukraine-russia-remains-key-ally/)". *The Washington Post*.

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245\. Cunningham, James (6 January 2023). "[Cuba and Russia Strengthen Strategic Partnership](https://dialogo-americas.com/articles/cuba-and-russia-strengthen-strategic-partnership/#.ZEsYuC-l0_U)". *dialogo-americas.com*.

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246\. "[Evoking Castro, Putin and Cuban leader pledge to deepen ties](https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/evoking-castro-putin-cuban-leader-pledge-deepen-ties-2022-11-22/)". *Reuters*. 22 November 2022.

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247\. "[Foreign Relations of the United States](https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v06/d499)". Office of the Historian, Foreign Service Institute – [United States Department of State](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State). 6 April 1960.

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248\. Yaffe, Helen (2021). "[Sanctions as War](http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/253303/)".

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249\. "[Cuban Democracy Act](https://1997-2001.state.gov/www/regions/wha/cuba/democ_act_1992.html)". U.S. Department of State. 1992.

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250\. "[The US Embargo Against Cuba: Its Impact on Economic and Social Rights](https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/amr25/007/2009/en/)". Amnesty International. September 2009.

<!-- .ref id=ref-251 -->
251\. "[Cuba: UN Members overwhelmingly support end of US embargo, as Brazil backs Washington](https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/11/1050891)". United Nations News. 7 November 2019.

<!-- .ref id=ref-252 -->
252\. Roy 2000.

<!-- .ref id=ref-253 -->
253\. Domínguez, Jorge I. (2001). "Reviews: *Cuba, the United States, and the Helms-Burton Doctrine: International Reactions* by Joaquín Roy". *[Journal of Latin American Studies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Latin_American_Studies)*.

<!-- .ref id=ref-254 -->
254\. Roy's study was described as "systematic and fair" by [Jorge Domínguez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_I._Dominguez).\[253\]

<!-- .ref id=ref-255 -->
255\. "[Obama Says U.S., Cuba Taking Critical Steps Toward a New Day](http://www.america.gov/st/peacesec-english/2009/April/20090421102201dmslahrellek0.4116632.html)". Bureau of International Information Programs, U.S. Department of State. 21 April 2009.

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256\. "[U.S. Administration Announcement on U.S. Policy Toward Cuba](http://www.america.gov/st/texttrans-english/2009/April/20090413170610eaifas0.2033502.html)". Bureau of International Information Programs, U.S. Department of State. 13 April 2009.

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257\. Daniel Trotta and Steve Holland (17 December 2014). "[U.S., Cuba restore ties after 50 years](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cuba-usa-gross-idUSKBN0JV1H520141217)". *Reuters*.

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258\. Baker, Peter (17 December 2014). "[U.S. to Restore Full Relations With Cuba, Erasing a Last Trace of Cold War Hostility](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/18/world/americas/us-cuba-relations.html)". *The New York Times*.

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259\. Frances Robles; Julie Hirschfeld Davis (18 December 2014). "[U.S. Frees Last of the 'Cuban Five,' Part of a 1990s Spy Ring](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/18/world/americas/us-frees-last-of-the-cuban-five-part-of-a-1990s-spy-ring-.html)". *The New York Times*.

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260\. Parlapiano, Alicia (17 December 2014). "[How America's Relationship With Cuba Will Change](https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/12/17/world/americas/cuba-sanctions.html)". *The New York Times*.

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261\. Mark Landler and Michael R. Gordon (17 December 2014). "[Journey to Reconciliation Visited Worlds of Presidents, Popes and Spies](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/18/world/americas/journey-to-rapprochement-visited-worlds-of-presidents-popes-and-spies.html)". *The New York Times*.

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262\. Jackson, David (1 July 2015). "[Obama, Cuba announce embassy openings](https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2015/07/01/obama-cuba-raul-castro-embassy/29555255/)".

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263\. Jaffe, Greg. "[U.S. and Cuba reach deal to reopen embassies and reestablish ties](https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/us-and-cuba-reach-deal-to-reopen-embassies-and-reestablish-ties/2015/06/30/258209ba-1f70-11e5-84d5-eb37ee8eaa61_story.html)". *The Washington Post*.

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264\. Archibold, Randal C.; Davis, Julie Hirschfield (14 April 2015). "[Cuba to Be Removed From U.S. List of Nations That Sponsor Terrorism](https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/15/world/americas/obama-cuba-remove-from-state-terror-list.html)". *The New York Times*.

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265\. Gamboa, Suzanne; Abdullah, Halimah (14 April 2015). "[Obama Nixing Cuba From List of State Sponsors of Terrorism](http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/u-s-cuba-relations/obama-remove-cuba-list-state-sponsors-terrorism-n341446)". NBC News.

<!-- .ref id=ref-266 -->
266\. "[Cuba praises 'fair' US pledge on terrorism list](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-32313184)". BBC News. 15 April 2015.

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267\. Harris, Gardiner (17 September 2017). "[Tillerson Says U.S. May Close Cuba Embassy Over Mystery Ailments](https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/17/us/politics/tillerson-cuba-embassy.html)". *The New York Times*.

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268\. Lederman, Josh. "[U.S. tightens travel rules to Cuba, blacklists many businesses](https://www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/travel/ct-us-cuba-travel-restrictions-20171108-story.html)". *Chicago Tribune*.

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269\. Mason, Jeff; Holland, Steve (31 July 2021). "[U.S. issues new Cuba sanctions, Biden promises more to come](https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/biden-meet-cuban-american-leaders-amid-calls-tougher-action-havana-2021-07-30/)". *Reuters*.

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270\. "[SIPRI Military Expenditure Database \| SIPRI](https://www.sipri.org/databases/milex)". *sipri.org*.

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271\. "[Cuba: Havana's Military Machine](https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1988/08/cuba-havanas-military-machine/305932/)". *[The Atlantic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic)*. August 1988.

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272\. "[Cuban armed forces and the Soviet military presence](http://www.disam.dsca.mil/pubs/Vol%205-2/Cuban.pdf)".

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273\. "[Cuban army called key in any post-Castro scenario](https://www.redorbit.com/news/general/618165/cuban_army_called_key_in_any_postcastro_scenario/index.html/)". *Redorbit*. 15 August 2006.

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274\. "[Chapter XXVI: Disarmament – No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons](https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en)". United Nations Treaty Collection. 7 July 2017.

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275\. "[Cuba modernizes the S-125 Pechora missiles in military cooperation with Belarus](https://en.cibercuba.com/noticias/2025-05-04-u1-e208933-s27061-nid302096-cuba-moderniza-misiles-s-125-pechora-cooperacion)". *en.cibercuba.com*. 4 May 2025.

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276\. "[2024 Global Peace Index](https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf)".

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277\. Hugo Prieto. ["Elizabeth Burgos: 'Los cubanos se han dedicado al control de las Fuerzas Armadas'."](https://historico.prodavinci.com/2017/07/30/actualidad/elizabeth-burgos-los-cubanos-se-han-dedicado-al-control-de-las-fuerzas-armadas-por-hugo-prieto/)  *Prodavinci*. 30 July 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2022. *"Cuba es una dictadura militar y una sociedad militarizada."*

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278\. "[The Cuban military and transition dynamics](http://ctp.iccas.miami.edu/Research_Studies/BLatell.pdf)".

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279\. "[Vyacheslav Volodin: for us, Cuba is a symbol of the struggle for independence, struggle for self-determination of the people](http://duma.gov.ru/en/news/55808/)". *State Duma*. 22 November 2022.

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280\. Strobel, Brett Forrest and Warren P.. "[How Cuba Recruits Spies to Penetrate Inner Circles of the U.S. Government](https://www.wsj.com/politics/national-security/how-cuba-recruits-spies-to-penetrate-inner-circles-of-the-u-s-government-d277b931?mod=hp_lead_pos6)". *The Wall Street Journal*.

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281\. Laursen, F. (2009). "[The EU in the Global Political Economy](https://books.google.com/books?id=8N66N1M3fVMC&pg=PA279)". P.I.E. Peter Lang.

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282\. "[EU-Cuba relations](http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2004:076E:0384:0386:EN:PDF)". European Communities. 4 September 2003.

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283\. "[Number of Cuban political prisoners dips – rights group](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10517497)". BBC News. 5 July 2010.

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284\. "[Attacks on the Press in 2021](https://cpj.org/2021/12/attacks-on-the-press-in-2021/)". Committee to Protect Journalists. 9 December 2021.

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285\. Human Rights Watch (2008). "[World Report 2008: Events of 2007](https://archive.org/details/worldreport2008e0000unse/page/207)". [Seven Stories Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Stories_Press).

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286\. "[Cuba – Constant ordeal for independent media](https://rsf.org/en/cuba)". *[Reporters without Borders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reporters_without_Borders)*.

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287\. Sanchez, Isabel (27 September 2010). "[Cuba's neighborhood watches: 50 years of eyes, ears](http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gq3GU2QzFyRWT84_YNvI3mgOy7tg?docId=CNG.cd0ab416a2c7901c0abb23f392c5057d.ad1)". *AFP*.

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288\. Eckstein, Susan (1994). "Back from the Future: Cuba under Castro". Routledge.

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289\. "[Cuba Family Code: Country votes to legalise same-sex marriage](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-63035426)". BBC News. 26 September 2022.

<!-- .ref id=ref-290 -->
290\. "[Social Policy at the crossroads](http://www.oxfamamerica.org/newsandpublications/publications/research_reports/art3670.html/OA-Cuba_Social_Policy_at_Crossroads-en.pdf)". oxfamamerica.org.

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291\. "[What countries have a planned economy?](https://www.reference.com/government-politics/countries-planned-economy-3f07e563b79708ba)". *Reference*.

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292\. Plummer, Robert (27 March 2011). "[Cuba inches towards market socialism](https://www.bbc.com/news/business-12565417)". BBC.

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293\. Feinberg, Richard (14 June 2016). "Open for Business: Building the New Cuban Economy". Publisher: Brookings Institution Press.

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294\. LeoGrande, William (31 July 2018). "[Is Cuba's Vision of Market Socialism Sustainable?](https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/is-cuba-s-vision-of-market-socialism-sustainable/)".

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295\. "[Cuba's repressive machinery: Summary and recommendations](https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1999/cuba/Cuba996-01.htm#P392_35421)". Human Rights Watch. 1999.

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296\. "[Cuba raises minimum wage to 2,100 pesos and sets pensions cap at 1,528](https://oncubanews.com/en/cuba/economy/cuban-economy/cuba-raises-minimum-wage-to-2100-pesos-and-sets-pensions-cap-at-1528)". OnCuba. 2020.

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297\. Mesa-Lago, Carmelo (2025). "[Comparing Socialist Approaches: Economics and Social Security in Cuba, China, and Vietnam](https://books.google.com/books?id=COg4EQAAQBAJ&dq=Comparing%20Socialist%20Approaches%3A%20Economics%20and%20Social%20Security%20in%20Cuba%2C%20China%2C%20and%20Vietnam.&pg=PA61)". [University of Pittsburgh Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh_Press).

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298\. "[Inequality: The deal's off](https://www.economist.com/special-report/2012/03/24/the-deals-off)". *The Economist*. 24 March 2012.

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299\. "[CUBA: The Fastest Growing Remittances Market in Latin America](http://www.thehavanaconsultinggroup.com/en-US/Articles/Article/20?AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1)". The Havana Consulting Group & Tech. 23 June 2016.

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300\. "[Envío de remesas a Cuba cayó el 54,14 % en 2020, según expertos](https://oncubanews.com/cuba/envio-de-remesas-a-cuba-cayo-el-5414-en-2020-segun-expertos/)". *On Cuba News*. 24 November 2020.

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301\. Augustin, Ed; Robles, Frances (10 December 2022). "['Cuba Is Depopulating': Largest Exodus Yet Threatens Country's Future](https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/10/world/americas/cuba-us-migration.html)". *The New York Times*.

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302\. "[Un informe asegura que el 88% de los cubanos vive en la pobreza extrema](https://www.infobae.com/america/america-latina/2023/09/29/un-informe-asegura-que-el-88-de-los-cubanos-vive-en-la-pobreza-extrema/)". *infobae*. 29 September 2023.

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303\. "[GDP per capita (current US$) – Cuba](https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?locations=CU)". World Bank.

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304\. "[Cuba](https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cuba/)". Central Intelligence Agency.

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305\. "[Human Development Index (HDI)](https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI)". United Nations Development Programme.

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306\. "[2023 Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)](https://hdr.undp.org/content/2023-global-multidimensional-poverty-index-mpi#/indicies/MPI)". United Nations Development Programme. 11 July 2023.

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309\. Calzon, Frank (13 March 2005). "[Cuba makes poor trade partner for Louisiana](http://www.cubacenter.org/media/calzon/cuba_makes_poor_trade.html)". Center for a Free Cuba.

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311\. "[Cuba's Sugar Industry and the Impact of Hurricane Michele](http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/highlights/2001/IATR/cubaiatr.pdf)". International Agricultural Trade Report. 6 December 2001.

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312\. Glendinning, Lee (12 June 2008). "[Cuba to abandon wage caps](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jun/12/cuba)". *The Guardian*.

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315\. "[Cuba Ill-Prepared for Venezuelan Shock](http://ascecuba.org/blog/post/Cuba-Ill-Prepared-for-Venezuelan-Shock-.aspx)". Association for the Study of the Cuban Economy.

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316\. "[Gobierno de Castro otorga a cubanos permiso para construir viviendas 'por esfuerzo propio' en](http://www.noticias24.com/actualidad/noticia/152868/gobierno-de-castro-otorga-a-cubanos-permiso-para-construir-viviendas-por-esfuerzo-propio/)". Noticias24.com.

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317\. Alliance, Community (13 September 2011). "[Homeless in Cuba? Not Likely](https://fresnoalliance.com/homeless-in-cuba-not-likely/)". *Community Alliance*.

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318\. "[Opinion: Universal healthcare, no illiteracy and other Cuban feats under a U.S. embargo](https://www.latimes.com/opinion/readersreact/la-ol-le-cuba-us-embargo-trump-20170620-story.html)". *Los Angeles Times*. 20 June 2017.

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319\. Grein, John (1 January 2015). "[Recent Reforms in Cuban Housing Policy](https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/international_immersion_program_papers/17)". *International Immersion Program Papers*.

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393\. Smith 1996, p. 105: "The expansion of religious liberty began more than a decade ago, for example, and Cuban citizens, by and large, are free to practice their faiths without fear of persecution."

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448\. [Cuban Sports](https://www.whatcuba.com/cuban-sports.html) whatcuba.com. Retrieved 23 February 2021.

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449\. "[Cuban boxer defected unsuccessfully 38 times before realizing U.S. dream](http://sports.yahoo.com/news/meet-the-cuban-boxer-who-failed-to-defect-38-times-before-realizing-u-s--dream-200229434-boxing.html)". Yahoo Sports. 18 June 2015.

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450\. Satterfield, Lem (10 June 2015). "[From Cuba to world champion: Arduous defection continues to drive Erislandy Lara](https://www.premierboxingchampions.com/news/cuba-world-champion-arduous-defection-continues-drive-erislandy-lara)". *PBC Boxing*.

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451\. "[Cuba – Comité Olímpico Cubano – National Olympic Committee](http://www.olympic.org/cuba)". International Olympic Committee.

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