--- title: Kinshasa — English Wikipedia · full text with trees · page 3 description: Wikipedia's «Kinshasa», whole, every sentence with its dependency tree and pragmatics, CC BY-SA 4.0. It begins: Kinshasa (/kɪnˈʃɑːsə/; kinʃasa; Kinsásá), formerly named Léopoldville (Leopoldstad) from 1881 to 1966, is the capital and largest city of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. --- [Mova](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/) · [this page in HTML](https://mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Kinshasa/page/3/) [home](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/) / [corpora](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/) / [wikipedia](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/) / [en](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/) / Kinshasa # Kinshasa · page 3 From Wikipedia, [«Kinshasa»](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinshasa), revision of the 2026-09-01 dump, [CC BY-SA 4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). The trees and pragmatics of these pages, Mova's parse of that text, are CC BY-SA 4.0 too. [1](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Kinshasa/) [2](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Kinshasa/page/2/) **3** [4](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Kinshasa/page/4/) [5](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Kinshasa/page/5/) [6](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Kinshasa/page/6/) [7](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Kinshasa/page/7/) By late August 1998, forces of the ANC, RPA, and UPDF clashed with troops from FAC and the [Zimbabwe Defence Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe_Defence_Forces) (ZDF) for control of the capital.[148](../../148/ "tree and pragmatics") The ZDF employed heavy artillery to bombard densely populated areas, including [Kimbanseke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimbanseke), [Masina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masina,_Kinshasa), [Ndjili](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ndjili,_Kinshasa), and the Kingatoko village, which located near the [Bas-Congo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_Central) border.[\[74\]](../../page/7/#ref-74 "note 74")[149](../../149/ "tree and pragmatics") These attacks resulted in the deaths of approximately 50 civilians and left 282 wounded during the night of 27 to 28 August, leading to mass displacement as residents fled to safer parts of the city, while the ZDF's indiscriminate use of heavy weapons struck hospitals, religious buildings, and other non-combatant infrastructure without differentiating between military and civilian targets.[\[74\]](../../page/7/#ref-74 "note 74")[150](../../150/ "tree and pragmatics") In some instances, Congolese military authorities exacerbated civilian casualties by ordering residents to remain in their homes.[\[74\]](../../page/7/#ref-74 "note 74")[151](../../151/ "tree and pragmatics") On 28 August, in Mont-Ngafula, FAC soldiers brutally murdered two Red Cross volunteers, one by crushing his skull, as they tried to rescue victims in Mitendi and Mbenseke, which left several others injured.[\[74\]](../../page/7/#ref-74 "note 74")[152](../../152/ "tree and pragmatics") Rebel forces also targeted critical infrastructure, including the Inga hydroelectric power station in Bas-Congo, which was seized by ANC, RPA, and UPDF troops on 13 August 1998 and had its turbines stopped for three weeks, cutting electricity and water to Kinshasa and parts of Bas-Congo and severely disrupting hospitals.[\[74\]](../../page/7/#ref-74 "note 74")[153](../../153/ "tree and pragmatics") #### Human rights abuses, crackdowns on Cabindan separatists, and Joseph Kabila's rise to power Political opponents and civilians were subject to extrajudicial executions, torture, rape, and arbitrary detentions.[\[74\]](../../page/7/#ref-74 "note 74")[154](../../154/ "tree and pragmatics") Between August 1998 and January 2001, approximately 50 incident reports were submitted to the [United Nations Commission on Human Rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Commission_on_Human_Rights) and its mechanisms, including the [Working Groups](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_group) on arbitrary detention and enforced disappearances, and the Special Rapporteurs on torture and extrajudicial killings.[155](../../155/ "tree and pragmatics") Members of opposition parties such as the UDPS and PALU were particularly targeted, often detained in notorious facilities including the Police d'intervention rapide (PIR), the Direction des renseignements généraux et services spéciaux (DRGS, also called Kin Mazière), IPKIN (ex-Circo), and [Kokolo Military Camp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokolo_Military_Camp).[\[74\]](../../page/7/#ref-74 "note 74")[156](../../156/ "tree and pragmatics") A major crackdown happened on 28 October 2000, when President Kabila's security forces arrested at least 93 people, including 60 soldiers and 33 civilians from North Kivu, South Kivu, and [Maniema](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maniema), accused of plotting a coup d'état involving Anselme Masasu Nindaga, a founding AFDL member; some detainees were [summarily executed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summary_execution) or tortured to death, while others were imprisoned for over three years and only released following a government-issued general amnesty.[157](../../157/ "tree and pragmatics") In line with its military alliance with Angola, the Kinshasa government also targeted members of the [Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_for_the_Liberation_of_the_Enclave_of_Cabinda) (FLEC), a separatist movement seeking independence for the Angolan province of Cabinda, shutting down FLEC offices in Kinshasa between 1998 and 1999, arresting numerous Cabindan militants, many of whom were tortured, forcibly transferred to Angola, or remain missing.[\[74\]](../../page/7/#ref-74 "note 74")[158](../../158/ "tree and pragmatics") After the [assassination of President Laurent-Désiré Kabila](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Laurent-Désiré_Kabila) on 16 January 2001, his son and successor, [Joseph Kabila](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Kabila), was quickly installed as president and prioritized the de-escalation of armed conflict and the promotion of national reconciliation, particularly through the organization of the Inter-Congolese Dialogue (ICD), which brought together government representatives, rebel movements, opposition parties, and civil society in a comprehensive peace process.[\[75\]](../../page/7/#ref-75 "note 75")[159](../../159/ "tree and pragmatics") In March 2001, the [United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MONUSCO) (MONUC) deployed personnel to key conflict zones to monitor compliance with the [Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusaka_Ceasefire_Agreement), yet violence continued, particularly in North and South Kivu, where clashes involved groups such as the Mayi-Mayi militias, FDD, ALiR, and ANC.[\[75\]](../../page/7/#ref-75 "note 75")[160](../../160/ "tree and pragmatics") The ICD officially opened on 25 February 2002 in [Sun City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_City_%28South_Africa%29), South Africa, and a preliminary [power-sharing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_sharing) agreement was signed on 19 April 2002 between Joseph Kabila and [Jean-Pierre Bemba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Bemba), though it faced opposition from RCD-Goma and parties including the UDPS.[\[75\]](../../page/7/#ref-75 "note 75")[161](../../161/ "tree and pragmatics") Progress continued with a major diplomatic breakthrough on 30 July 2002, when Rwanda and the DRC signed a peace accord in [Pretoria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pretoria) [corpus](../../../Pretoria/ "in our corpus"), agreeing that Rwanda would withdraw its troops in exchange for the disarmament and repatriation of Hutu militias such as the [FDLR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Forces_for_the_Liberation_of_Rwanda), followed by a similar agreement with Uganda in [Luanda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luanda) [corpus](../../../Luanda/ "in our corpus") on 6 September 2002 to withdraw Ugandan forces and stabilize [Ituri Province](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ituri_Province).[\[75\]](../../page/7/#ref-75 "note 75")[162](../../162/ "tree and pragmatics") By year's end, foreign troops from Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Angola, and Namibia had begun withdrawing, a move that culminated in the Global and All-Inclusive Agreement in Pretoria on 17 December 2002, which established a transitional power-sharing government and integrated former belligerents into a [unified national army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo).[\[75\]](../../page/7/#ref-75 "note 75")[163](../../163/ "tree and pragmatics") Despite ongoing challenges, the process advanced with the ICD ratifying the agreement on 1 April 2003 in Sun City, along with a memorandum on transitional governance and armed group integration, and transitional institutions were formally inaugurated on 30 June 2003.[\[75\]](../../page/7/#ref-75 "note 75")[164](../../164/ "tree and pragmatics") Nevertheless, President Kabila, who remained in power until 2019, faced persistent opposition in Kinshasa, with his controversial victory in the [2006 presidential election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_general_election) triggering widespread unrest that prompted the deployment of [European Union forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Military_Operation_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%282006%29) to support [MONUSCO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MONUSCO) in maintaining order,[\[76\]](../../page/7/#ref-76 "note 76")[\[77\]](../../page/7/#ref-77 "note 77") and another unrest emerged in 2016 when the [Independent National Electoral Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_National_Electoral_Commission_%28Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo%29) announced a two-year delay in holding new presidential elections, a decision that ignited mass protests in September and December marked by street barricades, violent clashes, and a high civilian death toll.[\[77\]](../../page/7/#ref-77 "note 77")[\[78\]](../../page/7/#ref-78 "note 78")[165](../../165/ "tree and pragmatics") ## Geography ### Location Kinshasa is strategically situated on the southern bank of the expansive [Malebo Pool](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pool_Malebo), which covers 9,965 square kilometers in a broad [crescent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crescent) shape over flat, low-lying terrain with an average elevation of about 300 meters.[\[79\]](../../page/7/#ref-79 "note 79")[\[80\]](../../page/7/#ref-80 "note 80")[166](../../166/ "tree and pragmatics") It is bordered to the east by the provinces of [Mai-Ndombe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mai-Ndombe_Province), [Kwilu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwilu_Province), and [Kwango](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwango), to the south by [Kongo Central](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_Central), and to the north and west by the [Congo River](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congo_River), which forms the [natural boundary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_border) with the [Republic of the Congo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo) [corpus](../../../Republic_of_the_Congo/ "in our corpus").[\[81\]](../../page/7/#ref-81 "note 81")[167](../../167/ "tree and pragmatics") The Congo River, Africa's second-longest river after the [Nile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile), has the continent's highest [discharge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discharge_%28hydrology%29) and serves as a critical transportation route across much of the Congo Basin, with river barges navigable between Kinshasa and [Kisangani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kisangani) and along several tributaries.[168](../../168/ "tree and pragmatics") It is also a significant source of [hydroelectric power](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectricity), with the potential downstream of Kinshasa to generate electricity sufficient for roughly half of Africa's population.[\[82\]](../../page/7/#ref-82 "note 82")[169](../../169/ "tree and pragmatics") ### Relief Topographically, Kinshasa has a [marshy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsh), [alluvial plain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_plain), with altitudes ranging from 275 to 300 meters, along with hilly terrain that elevates from 310 to 370 meters.[\[83\]](../../page/7/#ref-83 "note 83")[\[81\]](../../page/7/#ref-81 "note 81")[\[84\]](../../page/7/#ref-84 "note 84")[170](../../170/ "tree and pragmatics") It has four principal features: the [Malebo Pool](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pool_Malebo), a large [water body](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_of_water) with islands and [islets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islet); the Kinshasa Plain, a highly urbanizable area prone to drainage problems; the [terrace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrace_%28earthworks%29), a series of low [ridges](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridge) overlooking the plain; and the hills area, marked by deep valleys and [cirque](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirque)-shaped formations.[\[81\]](../../page/7/#ref-81 "note 81")[171](../../171/ "tree and pragmatics") The Malebo Pool extends roughly 35 kilometers long and 25 kilometers wide, bordered by [Ngaliema](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngaliema) in the west and [Maluku](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maluku,_Kinshasa) in the east, and passes through other [communes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communes_of_Kinshasa) including [Gombe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gombe,_Kinshasa), [Barumbu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barumbu), [Limete](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limete), [Masina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masina,_Kinshasa), and [Nsele](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nsele).[\[81\]](../../page/7/#ref-81 "note 81")[172](../../172/ "tree and pragmatics") The Kinshasa Plain has a banana-like shape and is surrounded by eastward-oriented hills.[173](../../173/ "tree and pragmatics") Comprising mainly [sandy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand) alluvial deposits, this plain covers an area of about 20,000 hectares and hosts some of the city's most densely populated and urbanized communes,[\[81\]](../../page/7/#ref-81 "note 81")[\[85\]](../../page/7/#ref-85 "note 85") such as Limete, [Kalamu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalamu), [Bandalungwa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandalungwa), [Ngiri-Ngiri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngiri-Ngiri), [Kinshasa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinshasa_%28commune%29), Barumbu, and [Lingwala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingwala).[174](../../174/ "tree and pragmatics") Despite its urban potential, the plain is highly vulnerable to seasonal [flooding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood) and [waterlogging](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterlogging_%28agriculture%29) due to inadequate [drainage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm_drain) infrastructure, with recurrent inundation occurring during the [rainy season](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wet_season).[\[85\]](../../page/7/#ref-85 "note 85")[175](../../175/ "tree and pragmatics") The terrace is mainly situated in the city's western expanse, between [N'djili](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ndjili,_Kinshasa) and [Mont-Ngafula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mont_Ngafula).[176](../../176/ "tree and pragmatics") It comprises stony blocks of soft [sandstone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandstone) and [silica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_dioxide)-covered yellow [clay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay), topped with brown [silt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silt), and ranges from 10 to 25 meters in height.[177](../../177/ "tree and pragmatics") It retains vestiges of an ancient surface.[\[81\]](../../page/7/#ref-81 "note 81")[178](../../178/ "tree and pragmatics") The hills area commences several kilometers from the Malebo Pool and is characterized by deep valleys and cirque-shaped formations.[179](../../179/ "tree and pragmatics") These hills reach heights surpassing 700 meters and exhibit gentle, rounded contours sculpted by local rivers.[\[81\]](../../page/7/#ref-81 "note 81")[180](../../180/ "tree and pragmatics") While their eastern counterparts may reflect remnants of the [Batéké Plateau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batéké_Plateau), their origins in the west and south remain enigmatic.[\[81\]](../../page/7/#ref-81 "note 81")[181](../../181/ "tree and pragmatics") This region forms a natural amphitheater shaped by river [erosion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion) processes, which have been exacerbated by anthropogenic activities, often resulting in significant [environmental degradation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_degradation).[\[85\]](../../page/7/#ref-85 "note 85")[182](../../182/ "tree and pragmatics") Communes located within or adjacent to these hilly areas include Mont-Ngafula, [Bumbu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bumbu), [Selembao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selembao), [Kisenso](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kisenso), and Ngaliema.[183](../../183/ "tree and pragmatics") In addition, [Makala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makala) and [Ngaba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngaba), although partially located within the plains, gradually ascend into the adjacent highlands.[\[85\]](../../page/7/#ref-85 "note 85")[184](../../184/ "tree and pragmatics") ### Hydrography Kinshasa's hydrographic landscape is defined by an intricate and predominantly [dendritic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drainage_system_%28geomorphology%29#Dendritic_drainage_pattern) network of rivers and valleys that converge toward Pool Malebo.[185](../../185/ "tree and pragmatics") This fluvial system, which predominantly flows from the southern and southwestern highlands toward the north and northeast, is shaped by the region's topographical gradient and its underlying lithological structure.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[186](../../186/ "tree and pragmatics") The city's current hydrological dynamics are the cumulative result of long-term [tectonic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonics) shifts, [sedimentary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sediment) processes, and [climatic variability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change) that have defined the development of [river systems](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drainage_system_%28geomorphology%29) over [geological time scales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale).[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[187](../../187/ "tree and pragmatics") The hydrographic system is composed of two main categories of rivers: [allochthonous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allochthonous) (originating outside the city) and autochthonous (local or internal to the city).[188](../../188/ "tree and pragmatics") The allochthonous rivers, which include the [N'djili](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ndjili_River), N'sele, and the Pool Malebo, form the city's eastern and northern boundaries.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[189](../../189/ "tree and pragmatics") These rivers have their sources far beyond the city's southern hills and generally flow in a south-to-north direction.[190](../../190/ "tree and pragmatics") The N'djili River, in particular, is prone to recurrent [seasonal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season) [flooding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood) in its lower reaches, frequently disrupting critical infrastructure.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[191](../../191/ "tree and pragmatics") In contrast, the autochthonous rivers, such as the Funa, [Lukunga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukunga_River), Bombo, Mai-Ndombe, and Mbale, are generated from localized watersheds scattered throughout the urban area.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[\[81\]](../../page/7/#ref-81 "note 81")[\[87\]](../../page/7/#ref-87 "note 87")[\[88\]](../../page/7/#ref-88 "note 88")[192](../../192/ "tree and pragmatics") These rivers often carve deeply incised valleys, especially in the elevated southern regions.[193](../../193/ "tree and pragmatics") The Funa River is commonly but inaccurately referred to as the [Kalamu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalamu), a misnomer derived from the [Teke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teke_languages)-Humbu term for "[watercourse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream)".[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[194](../../194/ "tree and pragmatics") #### Geomorphology The current hydrographic network overlays an ancient system, likely dating back to the [Tertiary period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_period), which originally drained from south to north but was subsequently modified by tectonic deformation following the late [Cretaceous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous) [peneplanation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peneplanation).[195](../../195/ "tree and pragmatics") These geodynamic changes reoriented some rivers east–west in the eastern parts of the [Congo Basin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congo_Basin) and west–east in the west.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[196](../../196/ "tree and pragmatics") Traces of this paleonetwork persist in the form of broad, flat-bottomed valleys known as dambos or dembos, which emerged during the [Holocene epoch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene).[197](../../197/ "tree and pragmatics") Characterized by diffuse channels and lacking pronounced [riverbeds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_bed), these depressions often remain [waterlogged](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterlogging_%28agriculture%29) throughout the year due to the persistent [upwelling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upwelling) of the [groundwater](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater) [table](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_table).[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[198](../../198/ "tree and pragmatics") In recent centuries, however, increased hydrological stress, marked by heightened peak [runoff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runoff_%28hydrology%29), has induced the incision of more distinct channels within these formerly [marshy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsh) landscapes.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[199](../../199/ "tree and pragmatics") This hydrological transformation is evidenced by a marked rise in [surface runoff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_runoff) and a reduction in [infiltration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiltration_%28hydrology%29) retention, resulting in flashier hydrographs, more frequent flood events, and accelerated [erosional](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion) processes.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[200](../../200/ "tree and pragmatics") Recent studies estimate Kinshasa's runoff coefficient has increased to approximately 13%, a stark contrast to the near-zero levels before urban expansion and [land-use change](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-use_change).[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[201](../../201/ "tree and pragmatics") #### Aquifers and water table Closely connected to the surface drainage network are the city's groundwater systems, particularly the perched [aquifers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquifer) found in its permeable [sandstone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandstone) substratum.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[202](../../202/ "tree and pragmatics") These aquifers, often extending beyond the limits of their corresponding surface [catchments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catchment_hydrology), are sustained by deep [percolation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percolation) facilitated by the sandy and porous characteristics of the regional soils.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[203](../../203/ "tree and pragmatics") During the [dry season](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_season), rivers are primarily fed by these underground aquifers, which are recharged during the [rainy season](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wet_season).[204](../../204/ "tree and pragmatics") Early seasonal rains are absorbed into the soil and do not contribute to surface runoff until the retention threshold is surpassed, at which point excess water seeps downward to replenish groundwater reserves.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[205](../../205/ "tree and pragmatics") The region's high [soil permeability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permeability_of_soils) also facilitates the formation of erosion cirques, particularly on steep slopes where groundwater undercutting and concentrated surface runoff progressively destabilize hillsides, often culminating in [landslides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landslide).[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[206](../../206/ "tree and pragmatics") These geomorphic hazards have become increasingly pronounced in the city's rapidly urbanizing fringe zones, where informal settlement expansion, [deforestation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation), and inadequate [land-use planning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-use_planning) intensify environmental vulnerability.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[207](../../207/ "tree and pragmatics") ### Soil and geology The city's soils predominantly belong to the Arenoferrasol classification,[\[89\]](../../page/7/#ref-89 "note 89")[\[90\]](../../page/7/#ref-90 "note 90") characterized by fine-textured [sands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand) with [clay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay) content typically below 20%, low [organic matter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_matter), and saturated absorbent complexes.[\[81\]](../../page/7/#ref-81 "note 81")[208](../../208/ "tree and pragmatics") These soils has a strong [acidity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid) and are chemically deficient.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[209](../../209/ "tree and pragmatics") Despite their limited nutrient availability, they experience regular rainfall for approximately eight to nine months annually, resulting in significant leaching and intense [hydrolysis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrolysis) of soil [minerals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral).[210](../../210/ "tree and pragmatics") This extended exposure to precipitation adversely affects [soil fertility](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_fertility) and agricultural potential.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[211](../../211/ "tree and pragmatics") Geologically, Kinshasa is situated on a [Precambrian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precambrian) basement complex, mainly composed of finely stratified red [sandstone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandstone) that often contains [feldspar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldspar), visible at the base of the rapids near Mount Ngaliema and south of the N'djili River, where the rock shows strong resistance to erosion.[\[81\]](../../page/7/#ref-81 "note 81")[212](../../212/ "tree and pragmatics") The soil is shaped by these geological variations: [schisto](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schist)-[limestone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone) formations, along with older [lithologies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithology) associated with the West-Congolian Orogeny, generate yellow, clay-rich soils that are largely sterile and exhibit low permeability proportional to their sand content, while schist-sandstone and clay-limestone substrata produce yellow to light brown clayey sands with slightly better permeability but minimal fertility.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[213](../../213/ "tree and pragmatics") Fertile soils are primarily located within [alluvial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvium) and [colluvial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colluvium) deposits, where sediment accumulation enhances nutrient content and moisture retention.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[214](../../214/ "tree and pragmatics") In elevated terrains and along the slopes of deeply incised valleys, hydric erosion actively reshapes the schist-sandstone relief and ancient [massifs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massif).[215](../../215/ "tree and pragmatics") In these areas, soils are predominantly grayish sandy or clay-sandy in texture.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[216](../../216/ "tree and pragmatics") In lower-lying regions, a distinctive local material known as Lemba sand is prevalent, although certain pockets of clay-sandy soils yield improved crop outcomes.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[217](../../217/ "tree and pragmatics") [1](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Kinshasa/) [2](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Kinshasa/page/2/) **3** [4](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Kinshasa/page/4/) [5](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Kinshasa/page/5/) [6](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Kinshasa/page/6/) [7](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Kinshasa/page/7/) - ← previous: [page 2](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Kinshasa/page/2/) - next →: [page 4](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Kinshasa/page/4/) - ↑ back to [English Wikipedia](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/)