--- title: Sierra Leone — English Wikipedia · full text with trees · page 3 description: Wikipedia's «Sierra Leone», whole, every sentence with its dependency tree and pragmatics, CC BY-SA 4.0. It begins: Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country on the west coast of West Africa. --- [Mova](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/) · [this page in HTML](https://mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sierra_Leone/page/3/) [home](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/) / [corpora](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/) / [wikipedia](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/) / [en](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/) / Sierra Leone # Sierra Leone · page 3 From Wikipedia, [«Sierra Leone»](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leone), revision of the 2026-09-01 dump, [CC BY-SA 4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). The trees and pragmatics of these pages, Mova's parse of that text, are CC BY-SA 4.0 too. [1](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sierra_Leone/) [2](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sierra_Leone/page/2/) **3** [4](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sierra_Leone/page/4/) [5](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sierra_Leone/page/5/) [6](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sierra_Leone/page/6/) [7](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sierra_Leone/page/7/) Stevens reorganised the country's oil refinery, the government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, and a cement factory.[\[80\]](../../page/7/#ref-80 "note 80")[203](../../203/ "tree and pragmatics") He began efforts that later improved transportation and movement between the provinces and Freetown.[204](../../204/ "tree and pragmatics") Roads and hospitals were constructed in the provinces, and Paramount Chiefs and provincial peoples became a prominent force in Freetown.[205](../../205/ "tree and pragmatics") Under the pressure of several coup attempts, real or perceived, Stevens's rule grew increasingly authoritarian, and his relationship with some of his supporters deteriorated.[206](../../206/ "tree and pragmatics") He removed the SLPP from competitive politics in general elections, some believed, through violence and intimidation.[207](../../207/ "tree and pragmatics") To maintain the support of the military, Stevens retained the popular John Amadu Bangura as head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces.[208](../../208/ "tree and pragmatics") After the return to civilian rule, [by-elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/By-election) were held (beginning in autumn 1968) and an all-APC cabinet was appointed.[209](../../209/ "tree and pragmatics") In November 1968, unrest in the provinces led Stevens to declare a state of emergency across the country.[210](../../210/ "tree and pragmatics") Many senior officers in the Sierra Leone Army were greatly disappointed with Stevens's policies and his handling of the Sierra Leone Military, but none could confront him.[211](../../211/ "tree and pragmatics") Brigadier General Bangura, who had reinstated Stevens as prime minister, was widely considered the only person who could control Stevens.[212](../../212/ "tree and pragmatics") The army was devoted to Bangura.[213](../../213/ "tree and pragmatics") In September 1970, Stevens declared another state of emergency to counter an alleged officers' plot against him.[\[81\]](../../page/7/#ref-81 "note 81")[214](../../214/ "tree and pragmatics") Bangura would indeed end up leading a coup against Stevens on 23 March 1971, which failed.[\[81\]](../../page/7/#ref-81 "note 81")[215](../../215/ "tree and pragmatics") Bangura and many plotters were executed afterwards, and dozens of other soldiers were arrested and convicted by a [court martial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_martial) in Freetown for their participation in the coup.[216](../../216/ "tree and pragmatics") Among the soldiers arrested was an army [corporal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporal), [Foday Sankoh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foday_Sankoh), a strong Bangura supporter, who later formed the [Revolutionary United Front (RUF)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_United_Front).[217](../../217/ "tree and pragmatics") Sankoh was jailed for seven years at Pademba Road Prison in Freetown.[218](../../218/ "tree and pragmatics") Stevens was a close ally of Guinean president [Ahmed Sékou Touré](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_Sékou_Touré) to the point where there was talk of unification between the two countries.[219](../../219/ "tree and pragmatics") Shortly after the 1971 coup, Sierra Leone and Guinea signed a defense agreement, and Guinean troops were stationed in the country to protect Stevens' government.[220](../../220/ "tree and pragmatics") These troops would remain until 1974.[\[82\]](../../page/7/#ref-82 "note 82")[221](../../221/ "tree and pragmatics") In April 1971, a new republican constitution was adopted under which Stevens became president.[222](../../222/ "tree and pragmatics") In the 1972 by-elections, the opposition SLPP complained of intimidation and procedural obstruction by the APC and militia.[223](../../223/ "tree and pragmatics") These problems became so severe that the SLPP boycotted the [1973 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leonean_general_election,_1973); as a result, the APC won 84 of the 85 elected seats.[\[83\]](../../page/7/#ref-83 "note 83")[224](../../224/ "tree and pragmatics") An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens failed in 1974 and its leaders were executed in July 1975.[\[84\]](../../page/7/#ref-84 "note 84")[225](../../225/ "tree and pragmatics") In March 1976, Stevens was elected without opposition to a second five-year term as president.[226](../../226/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against the government disrupted Sierra Leone's politics.[227](../../227/ "tree and pragmatics") The demonstration was quickly put down by the army and Stevens's personal Special Security Division (SSD), a heavily armed paramilitary force he had created to protect him and maintain his hold on power.[\[85\]](../../page/7/#ref-85 "note 85")[228](../../228/ "tree and pragmatics") SSD officers were loyal to Stevens and were deployed across the country to clamp down on any rebellion or protest against his government.[229](../../229/ "tree and pragmatics") [A general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leonean_parliamentary_election,_1977) was called later that year in which corruption was again endemic; the APC won 74 seats and the SLPP 15.[230](../../230/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1978, the APC-dominant parliament approved a new constitution making the country a one-party state.[231](../../231/ "tree and pragmatics") The 1978 constitution made the APC the only legal political party in Sierra Leone.[\[86\]](../../page/7/#ref-86 "note 86")[232](../../232/ "tree and pragmatics") This move led to another major demonstration against the government in many parts of the country, which was also put down by the army and the SSD force.[233](../../233/ "tree and pragmatics") Stevens is generally criticised for dictatorial methods and government corruption, but he kept the country stable and from collapsing into civil war.[234](../../234/ "tree and pragmatics") He created government institutions still in use.[235](../../235/ "tree and pragmatics") Stevens reduced ethnic polarisation in government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into his all-dominant APC government.[236](../../236/ "tree and pragmatics") Stevens retired from politics in November 1985.[237](../../237/ "tree and pragmatics") The APC named a new presidential candidate, [Major General](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_General) [Joseph Saidu Momoh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Saidu_Momoh), head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces.[238](../../238/ "tree and pragmatics") Momoh had been loyal to Stevens, who had appointed him to the position.[239](../../239/ "tree and pragmatics") Like Stevens, Momoh was a member of the minority [Limba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_people_%28Sierra_Leone%29) ethnic group.[240](../../240/ "tree and pragmatics") As the sole candidate, Momoh was elected president without opposition and sworn in as Sierra Leone's second president on 28 November 1985 in Freetown.[241](../../241/ "tree and pragmatics") President Momoh appointed his former military colleague and key ally, Major General Mohamed Tarawalie, to succeed him as head of the Sierra Leone Military.[242](../../242/ "tree and pragmatics") Momoh named James Bambay Kamara head of the [Sierra Leone Police](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Police).[243](../../243/ "tree and pragmatics") Bambay Kamara was also a strong Momoh loyalist and supporter.[244](../../244/ "tree and pragmatics") Momoh broke from Stevens by integrating the SSD into the Sierra Leone Police as a special [paramilitary force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramilitary_force).[245](../../245/ "tree and pragmatics") Under Stevens, the SSD had been a personal force used to maintain his hold on power, independent from the Sierra Leone Military and Sierra Leone Police Force.[246](../../246/ "tree and pragmatics") The Sierra Leone Police under Bambay Kamara's leadership was accused of physical violence, arrest, and intimidation against critics of Momoh's government.[247](../../247/ "tree and pragmatics") Momoh's strong links with the army and verbal attacks on corruption earned him initial support among Sierra Leoneans.[248](../../248/ "tree and pragmatics") With the lack of new faces in the APC cabinet under Momoh and the return of many from Stevens's government, criticisms soon arose that Momoh was simply perpetuating the rule of Stevens.[249](../../249/ "tree and pragmatics") The next few years under the Momoh administration were characterised by corruption, which Momoh defused by sacking several senior cabinet ministers.[250](../../250/ "tree and pragmatics") To formalise his war against corruption, Momoh announced a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders and Public Servants".[251](../../251/ "tree and pragmatics") After an alleged attempt to overthrow Momoh in March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials were arrested, including Vice-President [Francis Minah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Minah), who was convicted of plotting the coup and executed by hanging in 1989.[252](../../252/ "tree and pragmatics") ### Sierra Leone Civil War (1991–2002) and the NPRC regime (1992–1996) Further information: [Sierra Leone Civil War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Civil_War)* The brutal civil war significantly impacted Sierra Leone, with internal and external factors contributing to widespread violence. International interventions, notably by the United Kingdom and the United Nations, were crucial in restoring peace. In October 1990, owing to mounting pressure from both within and outside the country for political and economic reforms, Momoh set up a constitutional review commission to assess the 1978 one-party constitution.[253](../../253/ "tree and pragmatics") Based on the commission's recommendations, a constitution reestablishing a multi-party system was approved by the exclusive APC Parliament by a 60% majority vote, becoming effective on 1 October 1991.[254](../../254/ "tree and pragmatics") It was widely suspected that Momoh was not serious about political reform, as APC rule was increasingly marked by abuses of power.[255](../../255/ "tree and pragmatics") The brutal civil war in neighbouring [Liberia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberia) [corpus](../../../Liberia/ "in our corpus") played a significant role in the outbreak of fighting in Sierra Leone.[256](../../256/ "tree and pragmatics") [Charles Taylor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Taylor_%28Liberia%29), then leader of the [National Patriotic Front of Liberia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Patriotic_Front_of_Liberia), reportedly helped form the [Revolutionary United Front (RUF)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_United_Front) under the command of former Sierra Leonean army [corporal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporal) [Foday Saybana Sankoh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foday_Sankoh), an ethnic Temne from [Tonkolili District](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonkolili_District) in Northern Sierra Leone.[257](../../257/ "tree and pragmatics") Taylor's aim was for the RUF to attack the bases of Nigerian-dominated peacekeeping troops in Sierra Leone who opposed his rebel movement in Liberia.[258](../../258/ "tree and pragmatics") On 29 April 1992, a group of young soldiers in the Sierra Leone Army, led by seven army officers—Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, Captain Valentine Strasser, [Lieutenant Solomon "SAJ" Musa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Musa), Captain [Komba Mondeh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komba_Mondeh), Lieutenant [Tom Nyuma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Nyuma), Captain Julius Maada Bio and Captain Komba Kambo[\[87\]](../../page/7/#ref-87 "note 87")—staged a [military coup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_coup) that sent Momoh into exile in Guinea, and the soldiers established the National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC), with 25-year-old Captain Valentine Strasser as its chairman and Head of State of the country.[\[88\]](../../page/7/#ref-88 "note 88")[259](../../259/ "tree and pragmatics") The NPRC junta immediately suspended the constitution, banned all political parties, limited [freedom of speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_speech) and [freedom of the press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press), and enacted a rule-by-decree policy, in which soldiers were granted unlimited powers of administrative detention without charge or trial, and challenges against such detentions in court were precluded.[260](../../260/ "tree and pragmatics") SAJ Musa, a childhood friend of Strasser, became the deputy chairman and deputy leader of the NPRC government.[261](../../261/ "tree and pragmatics") Strasser became the world's youngest head of state when he seized power just three days after his 25th birthday.[262](../../262/ "tree and pragmatics") The NPRC established the National Supreme Council of State as the military highest command and final authority in all matters and was exclusively made up of the highest-ranking NPRC soldiers, including Strasser and the others who toppled Momoh.[\[88\]](../../page/7/#ref-88 "note 88")[263](../../263/ "tree and pragmatics") One of the top-ranking soldiers in the NPRC junta, Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, a trusted ally of Strasser, was assassinated, allegedly by Major S.I.M.[264](../../264/ "tree and pragmatics") Turay, a key loyalist of Momoh.[265](../../265/ "tree and pragmatics") A heavily armed military manhunt was carried out across the country to find Sandy's killer.[266](../../266/ "tree and pragmatics") Turay, the main suspect, fled to Guinea.[267](../../267/ "tree and pragmatics") Dozens of soldiers loyal to Momoh were arrested, including Colonel Kahota M. Dumbuya and Major Yayah Turay.[268](../../268/ "tree and pragmatics") The NPRC maintained relations with ECOWAS and strengthened support for Sierra Leone-based ECOMOG troops fighting in the Liberian war.[269](../../269/ "tree and pragmatics") On 28 December 1992, an alleged coup attempt against the NPRC government aimed at freeing the detained Colonel Yahya Kanu, Colonel [Kahota M.S. Dumbuya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kahota_M.S._Dumbuya), and former inspector general of police Bambay Kamara, was foiled.[270](../../270/ "tree and pragmatics") Several Junior army officers led by Sergeant Mohamed Lamin Bangura were identified as being behind the coup plot.[271](../../271/ "tree and pragmatics") The coup plot led to the execution of 17 soldiers by firing squad.[272](../../272/ "tree and pragmatics") Some of those executed include Colonel Kahota Dumbuya, Major Yayah Kanu, and Sergeant Mohamed Lamin Bangura.[273](../../273/ "tree and pragmatics") Several prominent members of the Momoh government who had been in detention at the Pa Demba Road prison, including former inspector general of police Bambay Kamara, were also executed.[\[89\]](../../page/7/#ref-89 "note 89")[274](../../274/ "tree and pragmatics") On 5 July 1994 SAJ Musa, who was popular among the general population, particularly in Freetown, was arrested and sent into exile after he was accused of planning a coup to topple Strasser, an accusation SAJ Musa denied.[275](../../275/ "tree and pragmatics") Strasser replaced Musa as deputy NPRC chairman with Captain Bio and instantly promoted him to [brigadier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigadier).[276](../../276/ "tree and pragmatics") The NPRC's efforts proved nearly as ineffective as the Momoh administration in repelling the RUF rebels.[277](../../277/ "tree and pragmatics") More and more of the country fell into the RUF fighters' hands, and by 1994 they had gained control of much of the diamond-rich Eastern Province and were getting close to Freetown.[278](../../278/ "tree and pragmatics") In response, the NPRC hired several hundred mercenary fighters from [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa) [corpus](../../../South_Africa/ "in our corpus")-based [private military contractor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_contractor) [Executive Outcomes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_Outcomes) to strengthen the response to RUF rebels.[279](../../279/ "tree and pragmatics") Within a month, they drove the RUF fighters back to enclaves along Sierra Leone's borders and cleared the RUF from the Kono diamond-producing areas of Sierra Leone.[280](../../280/ "tree and pragmatics") With Strasser's two most senior NPRC allies and commanders Lieutenant Sahr Sandy and Lieutenant [Solomon Musa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Musa) no longer around to defend him, Strasser's leadership within the NPRC's Supreme Council of State became fragile.[281](../../281/ "tree and pragmatics") On 16 January 1996, after about four years in power, Strasser was arrested in a palace coup staged by his fellow NPRC soldiers led by Brigadier Bio at the Defence Headquarters in Freetown.[\[90\]](../../page/7/#ref-90 "note 90")[282](../../282/ "tree and pragmatics") Strasser was immediately flown into exile in a [military helicopter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_helicopter) to [Conakry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conakry) [corpus](../../../Conakry/ "in our corpus"), Guinea.[283](../../283/ "tree and pragmatics") In his first public broadcast to the nation after the 1996 coup, Brigadier Bio said that returning Sierra Leone to a democratically elected civilian government and ending the civil war were his motivations for the coup.[\[91\]](../../page/7/#ref-91 "note 91")[284](../../284/ "tree and pragmatics") #### Kabbah's tenure: government, "dawn of a new republic", the AFRC and end of the Civil War (1996–2007) Following the 1995 National Consultative Conference at the Bintumani Hotel in Freetown, dubbed "Bintumani I", a Strasser-led initiative, the Bio administration initiated another National Consultative Conference at the same hotel, dubbed "Bintumani II".[285](../../285/ "tree and pragmatics") It involved both national and international stakeholders, in an effort to find a viable solution to the issues plaguing the country.[\[92\]](../../page/7/#ref-92 "note 92") "[286](../../286/ "tree and pragmatics") Peace before Elections vs Elections before Peace" became a key debate topic and this quickly became a point of national discussion.[287](../../287/ "tree and pragmatics") The discussions eventually concluded with key stakeholders, including Bio's administration and the UN, agreeing that while efforts in finding a peaceful solution to ending the war should continue, a general election should be held as soon as possible.[\[92\]](../../page/7/#ref-92 "note 92")[288](../../288/ "tree and pragmatics") Bio handed power over to Ahmad Tejan Kabbah of the SLPP, after the conclusion of elections in early 1996 which Kabbah won.[289](../../289/ "tree and pragmatics") After taking over, President Kabbah immediately opened [dialogue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue) with the RUF and invited their leader Foday Sankoh for peace negotiations.[\[93\]](../../page/7/#ref-93 "note 93")[290](../../290/ "tree and pragmatics") On 25 May 1997, 17 soldiers in the Sierra Leone army led by Corporal Tamba Gborie, loyal to the detained Major [Johnny Paul Koroma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Paul_Koroma), launched a military coup which sent President Kabbah into exile in Guinea and they established the [Armed Forces Revolutionary Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_Forces_Revolutionary_Council) (AFRC).[291](../../291/ "tree and pragmatics") Gborie quickly went to the Sierra Leone Broadcasting Services headquarters in New England, Freetown to announce the coup to a shocked nation and to alert all soldiers across the country to report for guard duty.[292](../../292/ "tree and pragmatics") The soldiers immediately released Koroma from prison and installed him as their chairman and Head of State.[293](../../293/ "tree and pragmatics") Koroma suspended the constitution, banned demonstrations, shut down all private radio stations in the country and invited the RUF to join the new junta government, with its leader Foday Sankoh as the Vice-Chairman of the new AFRC-RUF coalition junta government.[294](../../294/ "tree and pragmatics") Within days, Freetown was overwhelmed by the presence of the RUF combatants.[295](../../295/ "tree and pragmatics") The Kamajors, a group of traditional fighters mostly from the Mende ethnic group under the command of deputy [Defence Minister](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_Minister) [Samuel Hinga Norman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Hinga_Norman), remained loyal to President Kabbah and defended the Southern part of Sierra Leone from the soldiers.[296](../../296/ "tree and pragmatics") After nine months in office, the junta was overthrown by the Nigerian-led [ECOMOG](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECOMOG) forces, and the democratically elected government of president Kabbah was reinstated in February 1998.[297](../../297/ "tree and pragmatics") On 19 October 1998, 24 soldiers in the Sierra Leone army—including Gborie, Brigadier Hassan Karim Conteh, Colonel Samuel Francis Koroma, Major Kula Samba and Colonel Abdul Karim Sesay—were executed by firing squad after they were convicted in a [court martial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_martial) in Freetown, some for orchestrating the 1997 coup that overthrew President Kabbah and others for failure to reverse the mutiny.[\[94\]](../../page/7/#ref-94 "note 94")[298](../../298/ "tree and pragmatics") In October 1999, the United Nations agreed to send [peacekeepers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peacekeeping) to help restore order and disarm the rebels.[299](../../299/ "tree and pragmatics") The first of the 6,000-member force began arriving in December, and the [UN Security Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UN_Security_Council) voted in February 2000 to increase the force to 11,000, and later to 13,000.[300](../../300/ "tree and pragmatics") But in May, when nearly all [Nigerian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria) [corpus](../../../Nigeria/ "in our corpus") forces had left and UN forces were trying to disarm the RUF in eastern Sierra Leone, [Sankoh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foday_Sankoh)'s forces clashed with the UN troops, and some 500 peacekeepers were taken [hostage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostage) as the peace accord effectively collapsed.[301](../../301/ "tree and pragmatics") The hostage crisis resulted in more fighting between the RUF and the government as UN troops launched [Operation Khukri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Khukri) to end the siege.[302](../../302/ "tree and pragmatics") [1](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sierra_Leone/) [2](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sierra_Leone/page/2/) **3** [4](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sierra_Leone/page/4/) [5](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sierra_Leone/page/5/) [6](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sierra_Leone/page/6/) [7](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sierra_Leone/page/7/) - ← previous: [page 2](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sierra_Leone/page/2/) - next →: [page 4](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sierra_Leone/page/4/) - ↑ back to [English Wikipedia](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/)