--- title: Sri Lanka — English Wikipedia · full text with trees · page 2 description: Wikipedia's «Sri Lanka», whole, every sentence with its dependency tree and pragmatics, CC BY-SA 4.0. It begins: Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, formerly known as Ceylon, is an island country in South Asia. --- [Mova](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/) · [this page in HTML](https://mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sri_Lanka/page/2/) [home](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/) / [corpora](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/) / [wikipedia](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/) / [en](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/) / Sri Lanka # Sri Lanka · page 2 From Wikipedia, [«Sri Lanka»](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka), revision of the 2026-09-01 dump, [CC BY-SA 4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). The trees and pragmatics of these pages, Mova's parse of that text, are CC BY-SA 4.0 too. [1](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sri_Lanka/) **2** [3](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sri_Lanka/page/3/) [4](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sri_Lanka/page/4/) [5](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sri_Lanka/page/5/) [6](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sri_Lanka/page/6/) ### Post-classical period Main article: [Polonnaruwa period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonnaruwa_period), [Transitional period of Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitional_period_of_Sri_Lanka) Following a 17-year-long campaign, [Vijayabahu I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijayabahu_I_of_Polonnaruwa) successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century.[\[68\]](../../page/6/#ref-68 "note 68")[\[69\]](../../page/6/#ref-69 "note 69")[77](../../77/ "tree and pragmatics") Upon his request, ordained monks were sent from [Burma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma) to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola reign.[\[70\]](../../page/6/#ref-70 "note 70")[78](../../78/ "tree and pragmatics") During the mediaeval period, Sri Lanka was divided into three sub-territories, namely, [Ruhunu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Ruhuna), Pihiti and [Maya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_Rata).[\[71\]](../../page/6/#ref-71 "note 71")[79](../../79/ "tree and pragmatics") Sri Lanka's [irrigation system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lankan_irrigation_network) was extensively expanded during the reign of [Parākramabāhu the Great](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parakramabahu_I_of_Polonnaruwa) (1153–1186).[\[72\]](../../page/6/#ref-72 "note 72")[80](../../80/ "tree and pragmatics") This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power.[\[73\]](../../page/6/#ref-73 "note 73")[\[74\]](../../page/6/#ref-74 "note 74")[81](../../81/ "tree and pragmatics") He built 1,470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler in Sri Lanka's history – repaired 165 dams, 3,910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2,376 mini-reservoirs.[\[75\]](../../page/6/#ref-75 "note 75")[82](../../82/ "tree and pragmatics") His most famous construction is the [Parakrama Samudra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parakrama_Samudra),[\[76\]](../../page/6/#ref-76 "note 76") the largest irrigation project of mediaeval Sri Lanka.[83](../../83/ "tree and pragmatics") Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns – in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna ([Burma](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar) [corpus](../../../Myanmar/ "in our corpus")) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.[\[77\]](../../page/6/#ref-77 "note 77")[84](../../84/ "tree and pragmatics") After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power.[85](../../85/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1215, [Kalinga Magha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalinga_Magha), an invader with uncertain origins, identified as the founder of the Jaffna kingdom, invaded and captured the [Kingdom of Polonnaruwa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Polonnaruwa).[86](../../86/ "tree and pragmatics") He sailed from [Kalinga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalinga_%28historical_region%29)[\[75\]](../../page/6/#ref-75 "note 75") 690 nautical miles on 100 large ships with a 24,000 strong army.[87](../../87/ "tree and pragmatics") Unlike previous invaders, he [looted](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Looting), ransacked and destroyed everything in the ancient [Anuradhapura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anuradhapura_kingdom) and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery.[\[78\]](../../page/6/#ref-78 "note 78")[88](../../88/ "tree and pragmatics") His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of [Rajarata](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajarata) as possible.[89](../../89/ "tree and pragmatics") His reign saw the massive migration of native [Sinhalese people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinhalese_people) to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power.[\[79\]](../../page/6/#ref-79 "note 79")[\[80\]](../../page/6/#ref-80 "note 80")[90](../../90/ "tree and pragmatics") Sri Lanka never really recovered from the effects of Kalinga Magha's invasion.[91](../../91/ "tree and pragmatics") King Vijayabâhu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom to [Dambadeniya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dambadeniya).[92](../../92/ "tree and pragmatics") The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the [Jaffna kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaffna_kingdom).[\[79\]](../../page/6/#ref-79 "note 79")[\[80\]](../../page/6/#ref-80 "note 80")[93](../../93/ "tree and pragmatics") The Jaffna kingdom never came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one occasion; in 1450, following the conquest led by king [Parâkramabâhu VI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parakramabahu_VI_of_Kotte)'s adopted son, [Prince Sapumal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhuvanaikabahu_VI_of_Kotte).[\[81\]](../../page/6/#ref-81 "note 81")[94](../../94/ "tree and pragmatics") He ruled the North from 1450 to 1467 CE.[\[82\]](../../page/6/#ref-82 "note 82")[95](../../95/ "tree and pragmatics") The next three centuries starting from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically shifting collections of capitals in south and central Sri Lanka, including Dambadeniya, [Yapahuwa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yapahuwa), [Gampola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gampola), [Raigama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raigama), [Kotte](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kotte),[\[83\]](../../page/6/#ref-83 "note 83") [Sitawaka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sitawaka), and finally, [Kandy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kandy).[96](../../96/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1247, the Malay kingdom of [Tambralinga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tambralinga) which was a vassal of [Sri Vijaya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Vijaya) led by their king [Chandrabhanu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrabhanu)[\[84\]](../../page/6/#ref-84 "note 84") briefly invaded Sri Lanka from [Insular Southeast Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_Southeast_Asia).[97](../../97/ "tree and pragmatics") They were then expelled by the South Indian Pandyan dynasty.[\[85\]](../../page/6/#ref-85 "note 85")[98](../../98/ "tree and pragmatics") However, this temporary invasion reinforced the steady flow of the presence of various [Austronesian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austronesian_people) merchant ethnic groups, from [Sumatrans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Malays) (Indonesia) to [Lucoes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines–Sri_Lanka_relations) (Philippines) into Sri Lanka which occurred since 200 BCE.[\[86\]](../../page/6/#ref-86 "note 86")[99](../../99/ "tree and pragmatics") Chinese admiral [Zheng He](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zheng_He) and his naval expeditionary force landed at Galle, Sri Lanka in 1409 and got into [battle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming-Kotte_War) with the local king [Vira Alakesvara of Gampola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vira_Alakesvara_of_Gampola).[100](../../100/ "tree and pragmatics") Zheng He captured King Vira Alakesvara and later released him.[\[87\]](../../page/6/#ref-87 "note 87")[\[88\]](../../page/6/#ref-88 "note 88")[\[89\]](../../page/6/#ref-89 "note 89")[\[90\]](../../page/6/#ref-90 "note 90")[101](../../101/ "tree and pragmatics") Zheng He erected the [Galle Trilingual Inscription](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galle_Trilingual_Inscription), a stone tablet at [Galle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galle) written in three [languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages) ([Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language), [Tamil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_language), and [Persian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language)), to commemorate his visit.[\[91\]](../../page/6/#ref-91 "note 91")[\[92\]](../../page/6/#ref-92 "note 92")[102](../../102/ "tree and pragmatics") The [stele](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stele) was discovered by S. H. Thomlin at Galle in 1911 and is now preserved in the [Colombo National Museum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Colombo).[103](../../103/ "tree and pragmatics") ### Early modern period Main article: [Kandyan period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandyan_period) See also: [Portuguese Ceylon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Ceylon), [Dutch Ceylon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Ceylon), [British Ceylon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Ceylon) The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of Portuguese soldier and explorer [Lourenço de Almeida](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lourenço_de_Almeida), the son of [Francisco de Almeida](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_de_Almeida), in 1505.[\[93\]](../../page/6/#ref-93 "note 93")[104](../../104/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1517, the Portuguese built a fort at the port city of [Colombo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombo) [corpus](../../../Colombo/ "in our corpus") and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas.[105](../../105/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1592, after decades of intermittent warfare with the Portuguese, [Vimaladharmasuriya I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vimaladharmasuriya_I) moved his kingdom to the inland city of [Kandy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kandy), a location he thought more secure from attack.[\[94\]](../../page/6/#ref-94 "note 94")[106](../../106/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1619, succumbing to attacks by the [Portuguese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Empire), the independent existence of the [Jaffna kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaffna_kingdom) came to an end.[\[95\]](../../page/6/#ref-95 "note 95")[107](../../107/ "tree and pragmatics") During the reign of the [Rajasinha II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasinha_II), Dutch explorers arrived on the island.[108](../../108/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1638, the king signed a [treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandyan_Treaty_of_1638) with the [Dutch East India Company](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company) to get rid of the Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas.[\[96\]](../../page/6/#ref-96 "note 96")[109](../../109/ "tree and pragmatics") The following [Dutch–Portuguese War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch–Portuguese_War) resulted in a Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656.[110](../../110/ "tree and pragmatics") The Dutch remained in the areas they had captured, thereby violating the treaty they had signed in 1638.[111](../../111/ "tree and pragmatics") The [Burgher people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgher_people), a distinct ethnic group, emerged as a result of intermingling between the Dutch and native Sri Lankans in this period.[\[97\]](../../page/6/#ref-97 "note 97")[112](../../112/ "tree and pragmatics") The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka.[\[98\]](../../page/6/#ref-98 "note 98")[113](../../113/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1595, Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred [Tooth Relic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relic_of_the_tooth_of_the_Buddha)—the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst the [Sinhalese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinhalese_people)—to Kandy and built the [Temple of the Tooth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_the_Tooth).[\[98\]](../../page/6/#ref-98 "note 98")[114](../../114/ "tree and pragmatics") In spite of on-going intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom survived.[115](../../115/ "tree and pragmatics") Later, a crisis of succession emerged in Kandy upon king [Vira Narendra Sinha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vira_Narendra_Sinha)'s death in 1739.[116](../../116/ "tree and pragmatics") He was married to a [Telugu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telugu_language)-speaking [Nayakkar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nayaks_of_Madurai) princess from South India ([Madurai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madurai)) and was childless by her.[\[98\]](../../page/6/#ref-98 "note 98")[117](../../117/ "tree and pragmatics") Eventually, with the support of [bhikkhu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhikkhu) Weliwita Sarankara and ignoring the right of "Unambuwe Bandara", the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha's princesses, overlooking Narendrasinha's own son by a Sinhalese [concubine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concubinage).[\[99\]](../../page/6/#ref-99 "note 99")[118](../../118/ "tree and pragmatics") The new king was crowned [Sri Vijaya Rajasinha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Vijaya_Rajasinha) later that year.[119](../../119/ "tree and pragmatics") Kings of the Nayakkar dynasty launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessful.[\[100\]](../../page/6/#ref-100 "note 100")[120](../../120/ "tree and pragmatics") During the [French Revolutionary Wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars), fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, the [British Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire) occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they called the colony of [British Ceylon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Ceylon)) with little difficulty in 1796.[\[101\]](../../page/6/#ref-101 "note 101")[121](../../121/ "tree and pragmatics") Two years later, in 1798, [Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Rajadhi_Rajasinha), third of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka, died of a fever.[122](../../122/ "tree and pragmatics") Following his death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, eighteen-year-old Kannasamy, was crowned.[\[102\]](../../page/6/#ref-102 "note 102")[123](../../123/ "tree and pragmatics") The young king, now named [Sri Vikrama Rajasinha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Vikrama_Rajasinha), faced a British invasion in 1803 but successfully retaliated.[124](../../124/ "tree and pragmatics") The First Kandyan War ended in a stalemate.[\[102\]](../../page/6/#ref-102 "note 102")[125](../../125/ "tree and pragmatics") By then the entire coastal area was under the [British East India Company](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_East_India_Company) as a result of the [Treaty of Amiens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Amiens).[126](../../126/ "tree and pragmatics") On 14 February 1815, [Kandy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kandy) was occupied by the British in the [Second Kandyan War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Kandyan_War), ending Sri Lanka's independence.[\[102\]](../../page/6/#ref-102 "note 102")[127](../../127/ "tree and pragmatics") Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last native monarch of Sri Lanka, was exiled to India.[\[103\]](../../page/6/#ref-103 "note 103")[128](../../128/ "tree and pragmatics") The [Kandyan Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandyan_Convention) formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire.[129](../../129/ "tree and pragmatics") Attempts by Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine British power in 1818 during the [Uva Rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Rebellion_of_1817–1818) were thwarted by [Governor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governors_of_British_Ceylon) [Robert Brownrigg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brownrigg).[\[104\]](../../page/6/#ref-104 "note 104")[130](../../130/ "tree and pragmatics") The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by the [Colebrooke–Cameron reforms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colebrooke–Cameron_Commission) of 1833.[\[105\]](../../page/6/#ref-105 "note 105")[131](../../131/ "tree and pragmatics") They introduced a [utilitarian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilitarianism) and [liberal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism) political culture to the country based on the [rule of law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_law) and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of government.[\[105\]](../../page/6/#ref-105 "note 105")[132](../../132/ "tree and pragmatics") An [executive council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_Council_of_Ceylon) and a [legislative council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislative_Council_of_Ceylon) were established, later becoming the foundation of a representative legislature.[133](../../133/ "tree and pragmatics") By this time, experiments with [coffee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffee) plantations were largely successful.[\[106\]](../../page/6/#ref-106 "note 106")[134](../../134/ "tree and pragmatics") Soon, coffee became the primary commodity export of Sri Lanka.[135](../../135/ "tree and pragmatics") Falling coffee prices as a result of the [depression of 1847](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panic_of_1847) stalled economic development and prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc., and to reintroduce a form of rajakariya, requiring six days free labour on roads or payment of a cash equivalent.[\[106\]](../../page/6/#ref-106 "note 106")[136](../../136/ "tree and pragmatics") These harsh measures antagonised the locals, and [another rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matale_rebellion) broke out in 1848.[\[107\]](../../page/6/#ref-107 "note 107")[137](../../137/ "tree and pragmatics") A devastating leaf disease, [Hemileia vastatrix](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemileia_vastatrix), struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within fifteen years.[\[108\]](../../page/6/#ref-108 "note 108")[138](../../138/ "tree and pragmatics") The British quickly found a replacement: abandoning coffee, they began cultivating tea instead.[139](../../139/ "tree and pragmatics") [Tea production in Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tea_production_in_Sri_Lanka) thrived in the following decades.[140](../../140/ "tree and pragmatics") Large-scale rubber plantations began in the early 20th century.[141](../../141/ "tree and pragmatics") By the end of the 19th century, a new educated [social class](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class) transcending race and [caste](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste) arose through British attempts to staff the [Ceylon Civil Service](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceylon_Civil_Service) and the legal, educational, engineering, and medical professions with natives.[\[109\]](../../page/6/#ref-109 "note 109")[142](../../142/ "tree and pragmatics") New leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the [Ceylon Legislative Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislative_Council_of_Ceylon) on a communal basis.[143](../../143/ "tree and pragmatics") Buddhist and Hindu revivalists reacted against [Christian missionary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_missionary) activities.[\[110\]](../../page/6/#ref-110 "note 110")[\[111\]](../../page/6/#ref-111 "note 111")[144](../../144/ "tree and pragmatics") The first two decades in the 20th century are noted by the unique harmony among Sinhalese and [Tamil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamils) political leadership, which has since been lost.[\[112\]](../../page/6/#ref-112 "note 112")[145](../../145/ "tree and pragmatics") The [1906 malaria outbreak in Ceylon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1906_malaria_outbreak_in_Ceylon) actually started in the early 1900s, but the first case was documented in 1906.[146](../../146/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organisations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership of [Ponnambalam Arunachalam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponnambalam_Arunachalam),[\[113\]](../../page/6/#ref-113 "note 113") pressing colonial masters for more constitutional reforms.[147](../../147/ "tree and pragmatics") But without massive popular support, and with the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by creating a "Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost momentum towards the mid-1920s.[\[114\]](../../page/6/#ref-114 "note 114")[148](../../148/ "tree and pragmatics") The [Donoughmore reforms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donoughmore_Constitution) of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduced [universal adult franchise](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffrage) (the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms).[149](../../149/ "tree and pragmatics") This step was strongly criticised by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created [State Council of Ceylon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Council_of_Ceylon), which succeeded the legislative council.[\[115\]](../../page/6/#ref-115 "note 115")[\[116\]](../../page/6/#ref-116 "note 116")[150](../../150/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1937, Tamil leader [G. G. Ponnambalam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._G._Ponnambalam) demanded a 50–50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council.[151](../../151/ "tree and pragmatics") However, this demand was not met by the [Soulbury reforms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulbury_Commission) of 1944–45.[152](../../152/ "tree and pragmatics") ### Contemporary history Main article: [History of Sri Lanka (1948–present)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Sri_Lanka_%281948–present%29) See also: [Sri Lankan independence movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lankan_independence_movement), [Sri Lankan Civil War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Civil_War) The Soulbury constitution ushered in [dominion status](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion_of_Ceylon), with independence proclaimed on 4 February 1948.[\[117\]](../../page/6/#ref-117 "note 117")[153](../../153/ "tree and pragmatics") [D. S. Senanayake](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Stephen_Senanayake) became the first [Prime Minister of Ceylon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Sri_Lanka).[\[118\]](../../page/6/#ref-118 "note 118")[154](../../154/ "tree and pragmatics") Prominent [Tamil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamils) leaders including Ponnambalam and [Arunachalam Mahadeva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arunachalam_Mahadeva) joined his cabinet.[\[115\]](../../page/6/#ref-115 "note 115")[\[119\]](../../page/6/#ref-119 "note 119")[155](../../155/ "tree and pragmatics") The [British Royal Navy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy) remained stationed at [Trincomalee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trincomalee) until 1956.[156](../../156/ "tree and pragmatics") A countrywide [popular demonstration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953_Ceylonese_Hartal) against withdrawal of the rice rations resulted in the resignation of prime minister [Dudley Senanayake](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dudley_Senanayake).[\[120\]](../../page/6/#ref-120 "note 120")[157](../../157/ "tree and pragmatics") [S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._W._R._D._Bandaranaike) was elected prime minister in 1956.[158](../../158/ "tree and pragmatics") His three-year rule had a profound influence through his self-proclaimed role of "defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture".[\[121\]](../../page/6/#ref-121 "note 121")[159](../../159/ "tree and pragmatics") He introduced the controversial [Sinhala Only Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinhala_Only_Act), recognising [Sinhala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinhala_language) as the only official language of the government.[160](../../160/ "tree and pragmatics") Although partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which perceived in it a threat to their language and culture.[\[122\]](../../page/6/#ref-122 "note 122")[\[123\]](../../page/6/#ref-123 "note 123")[\[124\]](../../page/6/#ref-124 "note 124")[161](../../161/ "tree and pragmatics") The [Federal Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illankai_Tamil_Arasu_Kachchi) (FP) launched a movement of non-violent resistance ([satyagraha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satyagraha)) against the bill, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement ([Bandaranaike–Chelvanayakam Pact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandaranaike–Chelvanayakam_Pact)) with [S. J. V. Chelvanayakam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._J._V._Chelvanayakam), leader of the FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict.[\[125\]](../../page/6/#ref-125 "note 125")[162](../../162/ "tree and pragmatics") The pact proved ineffective in the face of ongoing protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy.[163](../../163/ "tree and pragmatics") The bill, together with various government [colonisation schemes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lankan_state-sponsored_colonisation_schemes), contributed much towards the political rancour between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders.[\[126\]](../../page/6/#ref-126 "note 126")[164](../../164/ "tree and pragmatics") Bandaranaike was [assassinated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._W._R._D._Bandaranaike#Assassination) by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.[\[127\]](../../page/6/#ref-127 "note 127")[165](../../165/ "tree and pragmatics") [Sirimavo Bandaranaike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirimavo_Bandaranaike), the widow of Bandaranaike, took office as prime minister in 1960, and withstood an [attempted coup d'état](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1962_Ceylonese_coup_d%27état_attempt) in 1962.[166](../../166/ "tree and pragmatics") During her second term as prime minister, the government instituted socialist economic policies, strengthening ties with the [Soviet Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union) and China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment.[167](../../167/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1971, Ceylon experienced a [Marxist insurrection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971_JVP_insurrection), which was quickly suppressed.[168](../../168/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1972, the country became a [republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic) named Sri Lanka, repudiating its dominion status.[169](../../169/ "tree and pragmatics") Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north during the 1970s.[\[128\]](../../page/6/#ref-128 "note 128")[170](../../170/ "tree and pragmatics") The [policy of standardisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_of_standardisation) by the Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrolment, which was in essence an [affirmative action](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affirmative_action) to assist geographically disadvantaged students to obtain tertiary education,[\[129\]](../../page/6/#ref-129 "note 129") resulted in reducing the proportion of Tamil students at university level and acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of militancy.[\[130\]](../../page/6/#ref-130 "note 130")[\[131\]](../../page/6/#ref-131 "note 131")[171](../../171/ "tree and pragmatics") The assassination of [Jaffna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaffna) [Mayor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor) [Alfred Duraiyappah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Duraiyappah) in 1975 by the [Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_Tigers_of_Tamil_Eelam) (LTTE) marked a crisis point.[\[132\]](../../page/6/#ref-132 "note 132")[\[133\]](../../page/6/#ref-133 "note 133")[172](../../172/ "tree and pragmatics") The government of [J. R. Jayawardene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._R._Jayawardene) swept to power in 1977, defeating the [United Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Front_%28Sri_Lanka%29) government.[\[134\]](../../page/6/#ref-134 "note 134")[173](../../173/ "tree and pragmatics") Jayawardene introduced a [new constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Sri_Lanka), together with a [free-market economy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-market_economy) and a powerful [executive presidency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_president) modelled after that of France.[174](../../174/ "tree and pragmatics") It made Sri Lanka the first [South Asian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia) country to [liberalise](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism) its economy.[\[135\]](../../page/6/#ref-135 "note 135")[175](../../175/ "tree and pragmatics") Beginning in 1983, ethnic tensions were manifested in an [on-and-off insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lankan_civil_war) against the government by the LTTE.[176](../../176/ "tree and pragmatics") An [LTTE attack on 13 soldiers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Four_Bravo) resulted in the start of a civil war, and in response anti-Tamil [race riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_July) took place, allegedly backed by [Sinhalese hard-line](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinhalese_Buddhist_nationalism) ministers, which resulted in more than 150,000 Tamil civilians fleeing the island, seeking asylum in other countries.[\[136\]](../../page/6/#ref-136 "note 136")[\[137\]](../../page/6/#ref-137 "note 137")[177](../../177/ "tree and pragmatics") Lapses in foreign policy resulted in India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms and training.[\[138\]](../../page/6/#ref-138 "note 138")[\[139\]](../../page/6/#ref-139 "note 139")[\[140\]](../../page/6/#ref-140 "note 140")[178](../../178/ "tree and pragmatics") In 1987, the [Indo-Sri Lanka Accord](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Sri_Lanka_Accord) was signed and the [Indian Peace Keeping Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Peace_Keeping_Force) (IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilise the region by neutralising the LTTE.[\[141\]](../../page/6/#ref-141 "note 141")[179](../../179/ "tree and pragmatics") The same year, the [JVP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janatha_Vimukthi_Peramuna) launched its [second insurrection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987–89_JVP_Insurrection) in Southern Sri Lanka,[\[142\]](../../page/6/#ref-142 "note 142") necessitating redeployment of the IPKF in 1990.[\[143\]](../../page/6/#ref-143 "note 143")[180](../../180/ "tree and pragmatics") In October 1990, the LTTE [expelled Sri Lankan Moors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_province_by_LTTE) (Muslims by religion) from northern Sri Lanka.[\[144\]](../../page/6/#ref-144 "note 144")[181](../../181/ "tree and pragmatics") In 2002, the Sri Lankan government and LTTE signed a Norwegian-mediated ceasefire agreement.[\[124\]](../../page/6/#ref-124 "note 124")[182](../../182/ "tree and pragmatics") [1](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sri_Lanka/) **2** [3](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sri_Lanka/page/3/) [4](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sri_Lanka/page/4/) [5](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sri_Lanka/page/5/) [6](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sri_Lanka/page/6/) - ← previous: [page 1](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sri_Lanka/) - next →: [page 3](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/Sri_Lanka/page/3/) - ↑ back to [English Wikipedia](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/corpora/wikipedia/en/)