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# Translation technique and syntax of the targums

The syntax of Onkelos is, to a large degree, **the syntax of the Hebrew verse** in Aramaic words. Where it departs from the Hebrew, it does so for reasons that can be named: Aramaic grammar, clarity, law (halakhah), and above all **reverence** — the avoidance of expressions that make God look human. This file describes both: the regular mapping and the departures. Jonathan to the Prophets follows the same rules more freely and adds whole sentences of interpretation.

References: Alexander 1992; Flesher and Chilton 2011 (ch. 2 on technique); Grossfeld 1988, *The Targum Onqelos to Genesis* (Aramaic Bible 6; in copyright); Klein 1982, "The Translation of Anthropomorphisms and Anthropopathisms in the Targumim" (*VT Suppl* 32); Smolar and Aberbach 1983, *Studies in Targum Jonathan to the Prophets*; Chilton 1987, *The Isaiah Targum* (Aramaic Bible 11). Examples from the public-domain Sefaria texts; counts are our unpointed token counts in Onkelos, 2026-10-17.

## 1. Word for word

In the plain narrative and in the laws, Onkelos gives one Aramaic word for each Hebrew word, in the same order:

```
Hebrew:    בְּרֵאשִׁית  בָּרָא  אֱלֹהִים  אֵת  הַשָּׁמַיִם  וְאֵת  הָאָרֶץ
Aramaic:   בְּקַדְמִין  בְּרָא  יְיָ      יָת  שְׁמַיָּא   וְיָת  אַרְעָא
Translit.: bə-qaḏmīn bərā yəyā yāṯ šəmayyā wə-yāṯ ʾarʿā
Gloss:     in-beginning.M.PL.ABS create.PEAL.PF.3MS LORD ACC heaven.DET and-ACC earth.DET
English:   In the beginning the LORD created the heavens and the earth
Source:    Gen 1:1 (Hebrew WLC; Onkelos, Sefaria, both public domain)
```

The mapping of the grammatical words is regular:

| Hebrew | Onkelos | count (Hebrew Torah / Onkelos, unpointed, 2026-10-17) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| אֵת, וְאֵת (object marker) | יָת, וְיָת | 3 450 / 3 238 |
| כִּי, וְכִי | אֲרֵי | 1 038 / 936 |
| אֲשֶׁר | דִּי, ד־ |  |
| ה־ (article) | determined state ־ָא |  |
| ה־ + demonstrative (הַהוּא, הָאֵלֶּה) | ה־ + demonstrative (הַהוּא, הָאִלֵּין) |  |
| הִנֵּה | הָא | הָא אֲנָא for הִנֵּנִי (Gen 22:1) |
| נָא (please) | כְּעַן | דְּבַר כְּעַן for קַח־נָא (Gen 22:2) |
| לֵאמֹר | לְמֵימַר | 308× לְמֵימַר |
| יַחְדָּו | כַּחֲדָא | Gen 22:8 |
| פְּנֵי (face of) | אַפֵּי | עַל אַפֵּי תְהוֹמָא (Gen 1:2) |
| לִפְנֵי, מִפְּנֵי (of God) | קֳדָם, מִן קֳדָם | §3 |

The near-identity of the two lists is what makes the Onkelos–Hebrew pair a nearly free parallel corpus ([Targumic Aramaic in Mova: what it would need](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/arc-x-targum/mova/) §4).

## 2. Why Aramaic grammar forces changes

| point | Hebrew | Onkelos | example |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| no article | הָאוֹר | נְהוֹרָא (determined) | Gen 1:4 |
| no *waw*-consecutive | וַיֹּאמֶר | וַאֲמַר (ו + perfect) | Gen 1:3 |
| *weqatal* | וְאָהַבְתָּ | וְתִרְחַם (ו + imperfect) | Deut 6:5 |
| construct of a definite noun | עוֹף הַשָּׁמַיִם | עוֹפָא דִּשְׁמַיָּא (ד־ genitive) | Gen 1:26 |
| "this" after the noun | הַדֶּרֶךְ הַזֶּה | אָרְחָא הָדֵין | Gen 28:20 |
| infinitive construct with a suffix | בְּשִׁבְתְּךָ | בְּמִתְּבָךְ | Deut 6:7 |
| suppletive verbs | הָלַךְ | אֲזַל | Gen 22:8 |
| idiomatic preposition | אֶל־הֶבֶל | לְהֶבֶל | Gen 4:8 |

## 3. Reverence: how the targum speaks of God

The targums avoid saying that God has a body, moves, sees in a human way, regrets, or is directly approached. They put a buffer between God and the world. The devices are few and very regular (Klein 1982; Alexander 1992; Flesher and Chilton 2011):

### 3.1 קֳדָם "before"

Actions directed **to** God are said to happen **before** him. Onkelos has קֳדָם יְיָ 624× (2026-10-17).

| Hebrew | Onkelos | source |
| --- | --- | --- |
| אֱלֹהִים יִרְאֶה־לּוֹ הַשֶּׂה "God will see for himself the lamb" | קֳדָם יְיָ גְּלֵי לֵהּ אִימְרָא "before the LORD the lamb is revealed" | Gen 22:8 |
| מִפְּנֵי יְהוָה אֱלֹהִים "from the face of the LORD God" | מִן קֳדָם יְיָ אֱלֹהִים | Gen 3:8 |
| וְהַעֲלֵהוּ שָׁם לְעֹלָה "offer him up there as a burnt offering" | וְאַסְקֵהּ קֳדָמַי תַּמָּן לַעֲלָתָא "offer him up **before me** there" | Gen 22:2 |
| עַל־פָּנָיַ "before me (besides me)" | בַּר מִנִּי "except me" | Exod 20:3 |
| רוּחַ אֱלֹהִים "the spirit of God" | רוּחָא מִן קֳדָם יְיָ "a wind from before the LORD" | Gen 1:2 |

### 3.2 מֵימְרָא "the word"

God's acting, speaking and being present in the world are often given to his **Memra** (מֵימְרָא, "word, utterance", from אמר). About 180 forms of the noun with the determined ending or a suffix occur in Onkelos (מֵימְרָא 63, מֵימְרִי 33, מֵימְרֵהּ 15, with prepositions more; 2026-10-17, our count, leaving aside the ambiguous bare מימר).

| Hebrew | Onkelos | source |
| --- | --- | --- |
| קוֹל יְהוָה אֱלֹהִים מִתְהַלֵּךְ "the sound of the LORD God walking" | קַל מֵימְרָא דַּיְיָ אֱלֹהִים מְהַלֵּךְ "the voice of the Memra of the LORD God going about" | Gen 3:8 |
| אִם־יִהְיֶה אֱלֹהִים עִמָּדִי "if God will be with me" | אִם יְהֵא מֵימְרָא דַּיְיָ בְּסַעְדִי "if the Memra of the LORD will be my support" | Gen 28:20 |
| וְהָיָה יְהוָה לִי לֵאלֹהִים "the LORD shall be my God" | וִיהֵא מֵימְרָא דַיְיָ לִי לֵאלָהָא | Gen 28:21 |
| וַיִּנָּחֶם יְהוָה "the LORD regretted" | וְתָב יְיָ בְּמֵימְרֵהּ "the LORD turned back in his Memra" | Gen 6:6 |
| וַיַּאֲמִינוּ בַּיהוָה וּבְמֹשֶׁה "they believed in the LORD and in Moses" | וְהֵימִינוּ בְּמֵימְרָא דַיְיָ וּבִנְבִיאוּת משֶׁה עַבְדֵהּ "in the Memra of the LORD and in the prophecy of Moses his servant" | Exod 14:31 |

Whether Memra is a theological "hypostasis" or a reverential periphrasis for the divine name is an old debate; most modern scholars take it as a translation device, not a doctrine (Klein 1982; Chilton 1987; Flesher and Chilton 2011). The Zohar later uses the word in its own way ([The lexicon of the Zohar](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/arc-x-zohar/lexicon/)).

### 3.3 יְקָרָא "the Glory" and שְׁכִינְתָּא "the Presence"

What humans **see** of God is his **Glory** (יְקָרָא); where God **dwells** is his **Presence** (שְׁכִינְתָּא, "dwelling"):

| Hebrew | Onkelos / Jonathan | source |
| --- | --- | --- |
| וַיִּרְאוּ אֵת אֱלֹהֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל וְתַחַת רַגְלָיו "they saw the God of Israel, and under his feet" | וַחֲזוֹ יָת יְקַר אֱלָהָא דְיִשְׂרָאֵל וּתְחוֹת כָּרְסֵי יְקָרֵהּ "they saw the Glory of the God of Israel, and under the throne of his Glory" | Onkelos Exod 24:10 |
| וָאֶרְאֶה אֶת־אֲדֹנָי "I saw the Lord" | חֲזֵיתִי יַת יְקָרָא דַייָ "I saw the Glory of the LORD" | Jonathan Isa 6:1 |
| אֶת־הַמֶּלֶךְ יְהוָה צְבָאוֹת רָאוּ עֵינָי "my eyes have seen the King, the LORD of hosts" | יַת יְקַר שְׁכִינַת מְלַךְ עַלְמַיָא … חֲזָאָה עֵינָי "my eyes have seen the Glory of the Presence of the King of the worlds" | Jonathan Isa 6:5 |
| קָדוֹשׁ … מְלֹא כָל־הָאָרֶץ כְּבוֹדוֹ | קַדִישׁ בִּשְׁמֵי מְרוֹמָא עִלָאָה בֵית שְׁכִנְתֵּיהּ … מַלְיָא כָל אַרְעָא זִיו יְקָרֵיהּ "holy in the highest heavens, the house of his Presence … the whole earth is full of the splendour of his Glory" | Jonathan Isa 6:3 |

### 3.4 Revelation instead of motion

God does not "come down" or "appear" by moving; he **is revealed** (ithpeel of גלי):

| Hebrew | Onkelos | source |
| --- | --- | --- |
| אֵרֲדָה־נָּא וְאֶרְאֶה "I will go down now and see" | אִתְגְּלֵי כְעַן וְאֶדּוּן "I will reveal myself now and judge" | Gen 18:21 |
| וַיֵּרָא מַלְאַךְ יְהוָה "the angel of the LORD appeared" | וְאִתְגְּלִי מַלְאָכָא דַיְיָ | Exod 3:2 |

### 3.5 Images and metaphors made plain

| Hebrew | Onkelos | what changed | source |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| יְהוָה אִישׁ מִלְחָמָה "the LORD is a man of war" | יְיָ מָרֵי נִצְחָן קְרָבַיָּא "the LORD is the master of victories in wars" | God is not a "man" | Exod 15:3 |
| וָאֶשָּׂא אֶתְכֶם עַל־כַּנְפֵי נְשָׁרִים "I bore you on eagles' wings" | וּנְטָלִית יָתְכוֹן כִּדְעַל גַּדְפֵי נִשְׁרִין "I carried you **as if** on eagles' wings" | the metaphor is marked as one | Exod 19:4 |
| וָאָבִא אֶתְכֶם אֵלָי "I brought you to me" | וְקָרֵבִית יָתְכוֹן לְפָלְחָנִי "I brought you near **to my worship**" | no spatial approach to God | Exod 19:4 |
| אֱלֹהִים אֲחֵרִים "other gods" | אֱלָהּ אָחֳרָן (Exod 20:3); elsewhere טָעֲוָת עַמְמַיָּא "the idols (errors) of the nations" |  | Exod 20:3 |

## 4. Law and interpretation

Onkelos also renders according to rabbinic law, without saying so:

| Hebrew | Onkelos | interpretation | source |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| וּבְכָל־מְאֹדֶךָ "with all your might" | וּבְכָל נִכְסָךְ "with all your property" | the rabbinic reading (m. Berakhot 9:5) | Deut 6:5 |
| לֹא תְבַשֵּׁל גְּדִי בַּחֲלֵב אִמּוֹ "do not boil a kid in its mother's milk" | לָא תֵיכְלוּן בְּשַׂר בַּחֲלָב "do not eat meat with milk" | the general prohibition of meat and milk | Exod 23:19 |
| נֶפֶשׁ חַיָּה "a living soul" | רוּחַ מְמַלְּלָא "a speaking spirit" | speech as what makes the human | Gen 2:7 |
| אֶרֶץ הַמֹּרִיָּה "the land of Moriah" | אַרְעָא פּוּלְחָנָא "the land of worship" | the Temple mount | Gen 22:2 |
| לְרוּחַ הַיּוֹם "in the wind of the day" | לִמְנַח יוֹמָא "at the resting of the day" | the evening | Gen 3:8 |

## 5. Poetry and prophecy: expansion

In the poetic chapters (Gen 49; Num 23–24; Deut 32–33) Onkelos becomes interpretive, and Jonathan to the Prophets does so throughout:

| Hebrew | Targum | source |
| --- | --- | --- |
| עַד כִּי־יָבֹא שִׁילֹה "until Shiloh comes" | עַד דְיֵיתֵי מְשִׁיחָא דְדִילֵהּ הִיא מַלְכוּתָא "until the Messiah comes, whose is the kingdom" | Onkelos Gen 49:10 |
| דָּרַךְ כּוֹכָב מִיַּעֲקֹב "a star shall step forth from Jacob" | כַּד יְקוּם מַלְכָּא מִיַעֲקֹב וְיִתְרַבָּא מְשִׁיחָא מִיִשְׂרָאֵל "when a king arises from Jacob and the Messiah is anointed from Israel" | Onkelos Num 24:17 |
| הִנֵּה יַשְׂכִּיל עַבְדִּי "behold, my servant shall prosper" | הָא יַצְלַח עַבְדִי מְשִׁיחָא "behold, my servant the Messiah shall prosper" | Jonathan Isa 52:13 |
| וַיִּבְרַח … מִלִּפְנֵי יְהוָה "he fled … from before the LORD" | מִן קֳדָם דְאִתְנַבֵּי בִּשְׁמָא דַייָ "from (the land) where he had prophesied in the name of the LORD" | Jonathan Jonah 1:3 |
| וְהַצְנֵעַ לֶכֶת עִם־אֱלֹהֶיךָ "and walk humbly with your God" | וַהֲוֵי צְנִיעַ לְהַלְכָא בִּדְחַלְתָּא דֶאֱלָהָךְ "be humble in walking in the fear of your God" | Jonathan Mic 6:8 |
| וַתִּתְפַּלֵּל חַנָּה וַתֹּאמַר "Hannah prayed and said" | וְצַלִיאַת חַנָה בְּרוּחַ נְבוּאָה וַאֲמַרַת "Hannah prayed in a spirit of prophecy and said", followed by a long expansion on Samuel, Heman and the Philistines | Jonathan 1 Sam 2:1 |

## 6. Word order

- In **translation**, word order is the Hebrew's: verb-first in narrative (וַאֲמַר יְיָ), subject-first in nominal clauses.
- In **expansion**, the targum's own order shows: participial and nominal clauses, fronted prepositional phrases, ד־ relative chains (Tg Ruth 1:1; Tg Isa 6:3).
- Object pronouns are suffixed to the verb or expressed with יָת + suffix: יָתֵהּ, יָתְהוֹן (יתה 298×, יתהון 222× in Onkelos), against BA's הִמּוֹ.

## 7. The relative particle

דִּי (written as a separate word, 1 636× unpointed in Onkelos) and the prefix ד־ (in דִּשְׁמַיָּא, דְּרָחֵשׁ, דְּמִצְרַיִם, דַּיְיָ) both occur. The separate form tends to render Hebrew אֲשֶׁר (דִּי רְחַמְתָּ "whom you love", Gen 22:2; דִּי אַפֵּיקְתָּךְ "who brought you out", Exod 20:2), the prefix the Aramaic genitive. In JPA and JBA only the prefix remains ([Particles and syntax of Biblical Aramaic](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/arc/particles-syntax/) §1).

## 8. Consequences for Mova

1. Most Onkelos verses can be **aligned word by word** with the Hebrew; the alignment is broken in predictable places (§3–§5).
2. The departures can be **detected**: an Aramaic verse markedly longer than its Hebrew, or containing מֵימְרָא, יְקָרָא, שְׁכִינְתָּא, מְשִׁיחָא, קֳדָם יְיָ where the Hebrew has none, is a paraphrase. This is a cheap, explainable signal of "interpretation" that a model can report.
3. The pair Hebrew–targum is a natural lesson in **pragmatics**: the same event, told with and without a human picture of God. The school of Mova can use it ([Targumic Aramaic in Mova: what it would need](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/arc-x-targum/mova/) §5).

The Elamur team

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