Elamur: **Mova** · [Parse](https://mova.elamur.ai/free/en/parse/) · [Dictionary](https://md.dictionary.elamur.ai/free/en/) · [Translate](https://md.translate.elamur.ai/free/en/) · [Research](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/) · [Groupants](https://md.groupants.elamur.ai/free/en/)

[Mova](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/) · [this page in HTML](https://mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/pairs/en-uk/)

[home](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/) / [docs](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/) / [languages](https://mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/) / [translation](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/) / [pairs](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/pairs/) / English and Ukrainian: the pair manual

# English and Ukrainian: the pair manual

**On this page**

1. [0. Data](#0-data)
2. [1. The contrasts at a glance](#1-the-contrasts-at-a-glance)
3. [2. The noun phrase](#2-the-noun-phrase)
4. [3. Pronouns and address](#3-pronouns-and-address)
5. [4. The verb](#4-the-verb)
6. [5. Voice](#5-voice)
7. [6. The clause](#6-the-clause)
8. [7. The lexicon](#7-the-lexicon)
9. [8. Register](#8-register)
10. [9. Idioms and proverbs](#9-idioms-and-proverbs)
11. [10. Culture-bound items](#10-culture-bound-items)
12. [11. Names, numbers, dates, typography](#11-names-numbers-dates-typography)
13. [12. Songs](#12-songs)
14. [13. Quality checks for English–Ukrainian](#13-quality-checks-for-englishukrainian)
15. [14. Corpus evidence, construction by construction](#14-corpus-evidence-construction-by-construction)
16. [15. The Bible in two traditions](#15-the-bible-in-two-traditions)
17. [16. Terminology by domain](#16-terminology-by-domain)
18. [18. How Mova handles it](#18-how-mova-handles-it)
19. [Sources](#sources)

English and Ukrainian are far apart in structure: English is analytic, with fixed order, articles, auxiliaries and almost no endings; Ukrainian is synthetic, with seven cases, aspect on every verb, gender on nouns, adjectives and the past, free word order that carries information, and no articles. They are close in modern vocabulary: Ukrainian has taken many English words since the 1990s, and English has taken a few Ukrainian ones (*borscht*, *hryvnia*, *vyshyvanka*). This manual sets them side by side, both directions, construction by construction. The general rules are in [general.md](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/general/); the one-sided manuals are [from-en.md](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/from-en/), [into-en.md](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/into-en/), [from-uk.md](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/from-uk/) and [into-uk.md](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/into-uk/).

## 0. Data

Since 2026-11-06 Mova holds two English–Ukrainian corpora, built with [tools/parallel](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/tools/parallel/) and described in README.md: **Tatoeba EN–UK** (217 646 sentence pairs, CC BY 2.0 FR, ids `tatoeba:<en id>-<uk id>`, authors in each row) and the **Kulish/Puluj Bible** of 1905 (public domain) verse-aligned to the WEB (29 655 verses, `bible-web-kulish:<BOOK>_<c>:<v>`) and the KJV (29 709, `bible-kjv-kulish:…`). They are quoted in §14 and §15; the examples in the other sections are constructed unless an id is given. The Ohienko Bible (1962) is not used: its translator died in 1972, so it is protected until 2042. Open English–Ukrainian resources described in the library are the OPUS collections used in machine translation research (for example the cleaned OPUS subsets of *(maksymenko-2023-controllability-english-ukrainian-machine-translation)*), the 1 000 OPUS sentence pairs with professional ratings of *(chaplynskyi-2026-professional-translators-versus-quality-estimation)*, the idiom pairs of SimIdioms (English side CC BY-SA, Ukrainian side academic use only) *(petruniv-2026-simidioms-corpus-benchmark-ukrainian-idiom)*, and an English–Ukrainian folktale corpus (*lassen-2022-ukrainian-english-folktale-corpus-parallel*). Their licences decide what can be quoted; none is quoted here.

## 1. The contrasts at a glance

| area | English | Ukrainian | the translator's task |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| articles | *a*, *the*, zero | none | en → uk: move definiteness into order, demonstratives or nothing; uk → en: recover it |
| case | pronouns only | seven cases | prepositions and order ↔ endings |
| gender | pronouns | nouns, adjectives, past verbs | uk → en: carry by pronouns; en → uk: decide |
| aspect | progressive and perfect, partly | every verb perfective or imperfective | decide on every verb en → uk |
| tense | many past and future forms | past, present, future; aspect does the rest | map |
| subjects | obligatory | often dropped | add uk → en; drop en → uk |
| possessives | frequent; *his/her/their* | often omitted; reflexive *свій* | drop and use *свій* en → uk |
| *you* | one | *ти* / *ви* | decide en → uk |
| word order | fixed SVO | free: given → new | reorder by information |
| passive | frequent | *-но/-то*, reflexive, third plural, active | restructure |
| negation | single | negative concord (*ніхто нічого не*) | map |
| copula | *be* | zero in present (*Він лікар*) | drop *є* in most prose |
| possession | *have* | *у мене є*; *мати* (formal) |  |
| address | names, *Mr* | vocative case, *пане/пані*, name + patronymic |  |
| register | contractions, phrasal verbs | particles, diminutives, short forms, order | each by its own means |

## 2. The noun phrase

### 2.1 Definiteness without articles

English → Ukrainian, the article's information goes into:

1. **Word order**, the main means: the new last, the given first. *A woman entered the shop.* → *До крамниці зайшла жінка.* *The woman entered the shop.* → *Жінка зайшла до крамниці.*
2. **Demonstratives** where English *the* points back strongly: *the book I told you about* → *та книжка, про яку я тобі казав*.
3. **«один»** for a specific indefinite: *A friend of mine called* → *Мені подзвонив один мій друг* / *один знайомий*.
4. **Nothing**, most often.

Ukrainian → English, the translator recovers definiteness from the same signals in reverse ([into-en.md](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/into-en/) §6.1). The commonest error of a Ukrainian translator into English is the missing or wrong article; the commonest of an English translator into Ukrainian is over-use of *цей* and *той* for every *the*.

### 2.2 Possessives and *свій*

English marks owners everywhere; Ukrainian only where needed, and uses the reflexive *свій* for the subject's own:

| English | ✗ calque | ✓ Ukrainian |
| --- | --- | --- |
| *He put his hand in his pocket.* | *Він засунув свою руку в свою кишеню.* | *Він засунув руку в кишеню.* |
| *She called her mother.* (her own) | *Вона подзвонила її матері.* (someone else's mother) | *Вона подзвонила мамі* / *своїй мамі.* |
| *They sold their house.* | *Вони продали їхній будинок.* | *Вони продали свій будинок* / *будинок.* |
| *Someone left their umbrella.* |  | *Хтось залишив свою парасольку.* (gender-free) |

Ukrainian → English: *Він узяв свою книжку* → *He took his book*; *Він узяв його книжку* → *He took his (another man's) book*; English *his* is ambiguous where Ukrainian is not, and a translator may need *his own* or a name.

### 2.3 Noun chains

English noun stacks become Ukrainian genitive chains, prepositional phrases or relational adjectives: *road safety awareness campaign* → *кампанія з підвищення обізнаності щодо безпеки дорожнього руху*; *child protection law* → *закон про охорону дитинства*; *data protection officer* → *відповідальний за захист персональних даних*. Genitive chains of more than three nouns are heavy (*✗ звіт комісії з питань контролю якості освіти регіону*); restructure.

### 2.4 Gender of role nouns

English role nouns are gender-free; Ukrainian ones are masculine or feminine (*учитель/учителька*, *лікар/лікарка*, *директор/директорка*, *міністр/міністерка*, *письменник/письменниця*, *кравець/кравчиня*), formed by the suffixes of § 32.4 of the 2019 orthography *(ukrainskyi-pravopys-2019)*. English → Ukrainian: if the text shows the person's gender, use the matching noun (current usage and most house styles use the feminitive); if not, the masculine generic or a doubled form by house style. Ukrainian → English: a feminitive tells that the person is a woman; carry it with *she* where the role noun is neutral (*Директорка сказала* → *The director said she …* or *The headmistress said* by context).

## 3. Pronouns and address

### 3.1 Dropped subjects

Ukrainian drops subject pronouns where the verb ending gives the person: *Прийшов, побачив, переміг* ("I came, I saw, I conquered"). English → Ukrainian, drop *I*, *we*, *you* in most narrative and dialogue, keep them for contrast or emphasis (*Я піду, а ти лишайся*). Third-person pronouns are kept more often, especially at a change of subject. Ukrainian → English: supply every subject, with the gender the past verb gives (*Прийшла пізно* → *She came late*).

### 3.2 *You*: *ти* or *ви*

| situation | Ukrainian |
| --- | --- |
| child, friend, family, peer online | *ти* |
| stranger, customer, official, colleague by default | *ви* |
| one addressee in a letter or official text | *Ви* (capitalised) |
| parents and elders in traditional rural usage | *ви* |
| prayer, poetry, address to a nation or homeland | *ти* (*Боже, ти …*; *Україно, ти …*) |
| brands | house style; many address customers with *ти* by choice |

### 3.3 The vocative and address

English → Ukrainian, use the vocative: *John!* → *Джоне!*; *Mr Smith* → *пане Сміте*; *Professor* → *пане професоре* / *пані професорко*; *Dear friends* → *Дорогі друзі*; *Mum!* → *Мамо!*. Ukrainian → English: render the vocative by the name; render *пане* / *пані* + first name (a polite and warm Ukrainian form) by *Mr* / *Ms* + surname in formal English or by the first name in friendly contexts; keep the name + patronymic (*Іване Петровичу*) as *Mr Petrenko* or, in fiction, as it is.

## 4. The verb

### 4.1 Tense and aspect map

| English | Ukrainian | example |
| --- | --- | --- |
| present simple | present imperfective | *I work here.* → *Я працюю тут.* |
| present progressive | present imperfective | *I'm working.* → *Я працюю.* / *Я саме працюю.* |
| present perfect, continuing state | present + *уже* / *вже … років* | *I've lived here for ten years.* → *Я живу тут уже десять років.* |
| present perfect, completed with result | past perfective | *I've finished.* → *Я закінчив.* |
| present perfect, experience | past imperfective (general-factual) | *Have you ever been to Lviv?* → *Ти колись був у Львові?* |
| *just* + past | past perfective + *щойно* | *I've just arrived.* → *Я щойно приїхав.* |
| simple past, single event | past perfective | *She opened the door.* → *Вона відчинила двері.* |
| simple past, habit, state | past imperfective | *She worked in Kharkiv.* → *Вона працювала в Харкові.* |
| past progressive | past imperfective | *She was reading when I came.* → *Вона читала, коли я прийшов.* |
| *used to* / *would* | past imperfective, *бувало* | *We used to swim there.* → *Ми там купалися.* / *Ми, бувало, там купалися.* |
| past perfect | past perfective (order by *уже*, *перед тим*) | *He had left before I came.* → *Він уже пішов, коли я прийшов.* |
| *will* (single result) | future perfective | *I'll call you.* → *Я тобі подзвоню.* |
| *will be -ing*, *will* (process) | future imperfective | *I'll be working all day.* → *Я працюватиму весь день.* |
| *going to* | future perfective, *збиратися* | *I'm going to call him.* → *Я збираюся йому подзвонити.* / *Я йому зараз подзвоню.* |
| conditional | *би* + past | *I would go.* → *Я пішов би.* |
| *would have* | *би* + past (context) | *I would have gone.* → *Я б пішов* (*тоді*). |

Ukrainian → English, the general-factual imperfective (*Ти читав «Кобзаря»?*) is an English present perfect (*Have you read the Kobzar?*), not a past progressive.

### 4.2 Reported speech

English back-shifts; Ukrainian does not: *She said she was tired* → *Вона сказала, що втомилася* / *що вона втомлена*; *He said he would come* → *Він сказав, що прийде*. Ukrainian → English, back-shift by English rules.

### 4.3 Modals

| English | Ukrainian |
| --- | --- |
| *must* (obligation) | *мусити*, *повинен*, *треба* |
| *must* (inference) | *мабуть*, *напевно*, *певно* (*He must be tired* → *Він, мабуть, утомився*) |
| *should* (advice) | *варто*, *слід*, *краще б* (*You should rest* → *Тобі варто відпочити*) |
| *should have* | *треба було* (*You should have told me* → *Треба було мені сказати*) |
| *may* (permission) | *можна* (*May I come in?* → *Можна ввійти?*) |
| *may*, *might* (possibility) | *може*, *можливо* |
| *can* (ability) | *могти*, *вміти* (learned skill) |
| legal *shall* | present (*Рада ухвалює*), *зобов'язаний*, *має*, *повинен* |

### 4.4 Argument structure: experiencers and possession

| English | Ukrainian |
| --- | --- |
| *I'm cold.* | *Мені холодно.* |
| *I like this film.* | *Мені подобається цей фільм.* |
| *I miss you.* | *Я сумую за тобою.* / *Мені тебе бракує.* |
| *I need help.* | *Мені потрібна допомога.* |
| *I'm thirty.* | *Мені тридцять (років).* |
| *I have a sister.* | *У мене є сестра.* |
| *I can't sleep.* | *Мені не спиться.* |
| *I feel sick.* | *Мене нудить.* |

### 4.5 Motion verbs

Ukrainian, like English, puts the manner in the verb and the path in a prefix: *He swam across the river* → *Він переплив річку*; *She ran out of the room* → *Вона вибігла з кімнати*; *They flew in* → *Вони прилетіли*. The French chassé-croisé ([pairs/en-fr.md](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/pairs/en-fr/) §4.5) is not needed. Ukrainian also distinguishes determinate and indeterminate motion verbs (*іти* / *ходити*, *їхати* / *їздити*, *нести* / *носити*): *I'm going to school* (now) → *Я йду до школи*; *I go to school* (habit) → *Я ходжу до школи*. And it distinguishes walking from riding: *go to Kyiv* is *поїхати до Києва* (by vehicle), never *✗ піти до Києва* unless on foot.

## 5. Voice

English → Ukrainian:

| English passive | Ukrainian |
| --- | --- |
| *The law was adopted (by Parliament).* | *Парламент ухвалив закон.* / *Закон ухвалив парламент.* / *Закон ухвалено.* |
| *The house is being built.* | *Будинок будують.* / *Будинок будується.* |
| *I was told …* | *Мені сказали …* |
| *English is spoken here.* | *Тут розмовляють англійською.* |
| *The window has been broken.* | *Вікно розбито.* / *Хтось розбив вікно.* |
| *It is believed that …* | *Вважають, що …* / *Вважається, що …* |

The passive with an agent in the instrumental (*✗ Закон був ухвалений парламентом*) is grammatical, frequent in official texts and heavy; the purist tradition analysed it as foreign to the language *(smerechynskyi-1932)*. In neutral prose, prefer the active; in official texts, follow the house style. Ukrainian → English: the *-но/-то* form becomes an English passive (*Вікно розбито* → *The window has been broken*) or an active with a vague subject; the third person plural (*Кажуть …*) becomes *They say*, *People say*, *It is said*.

## 6. The clause

### 6.1 Word order and information

| English | Ukrainian (neutral) | why |
| --- | --- | --- |
| *The letter came yesterday.* | *Лист прийшов учора.* | *лист* given; *учора* new |
| *A letter came yesterday.* | *Учора прийшов лист.* | *лист* new |
| *It was Ivan who called.* | *Дзвонив Іван.* | focus last, no cleft |
| *What I need is time.* | *Мені потрібен час.* / *Мені бракує саме часу.* | pseudo-cleft → order and *саме* |
| *This book was written by my grandfather.* | *Цю книжку написав мій дід.* | object first as topic, agent new last |

### 6.2 Negation

Ukrainian has negative concord: *Nobody said anything* → *Ніхто нічого не сказав*; *I never go anywhere* → *Я ніколи нікуди не ходжу*. The genitive of negation (*У мене немає часу*; *Я не бачив жодної машини*) is standard.

### 6.3 Questions and tags

English auxiliary questions become intonation questions with *чи* in writing or none in speech: *Do you speak English?* → *Ви розмовляєте англійською?* / *Чи розмовляєте ви англійською?* (formal). Tags become *так?*, *правда?*, *хіба ні?*, *еге ж?*, *чи не так?* (formal): *It's cold, isn't it?* → *Холодно, правда?*

### 6.4 *There is* and the copula

*There is a problem* → *Є проблема*; *There are many reasons* → *Причин багато*; *There's no time* → *Немає часу*. The present copula is zero: *She is a doctor* → *Вона лікарка*; *є* is used in definitions and formal style (*Київ є столицею України*) and overused in translations from English.

### 6.5 Particles and English intonation

English carries attitude by stress and by a few words (*do*, *really*, *after all*, *you know*); Ukrainian by particles. English → Ukrainian dialogue: add *же*, *ж*, *адже*, *хіба*, *таки*, *ну*, *от* where a Ukrainian speaker would (*I DID tell you!* → *Я ж тобі казав!*; *He came after all* → *Таки прийшов*). Ukrainian → English: render them by English stress words, *do*-emphasis, tags, or leave them to tone.

## 7. The lexicon

### 7.1 False friends

| English | ✓ Ukrainian | ✗ look-alike | look-alike means |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| *actual(ly)* | *справжній*, *насправді* | *актуальний* | topical, relevant |
| *decade* | *десятиліття* | *декада* | ten days |
| *magazine* | *журнал* | *магазин* | shop |
| *fabric* | *тканина* | *фабрика* | factory |
| *sympathetic* | *співчутливий* | *симпатичний* | nice, good-looking |
| *intelligent* | *розумний* | *інтелігентний* | cultured |
| *accurate* | *точний* | *акуратний* | neat |
| *data* | *дані* | *дата* | date |
| *argument* (quarrel) | *суперечка* | *аргумент* | reason, point |
| *realise* (understand) | *усвідомити* | *реалізувати* | carry out, sell |
| *pretend* | *удавати* | *претендувати* | lay claim, apply |
| *control* | *керувати*, *стримувати* | *контролювати* | check, supervise |
| *artist* (painter) | *митець*, *художник* | *артист* | performer |
| *auditorium* | *зала*, *глядацька зала* | *аудиторія* | lecture room; audience |
| *clay* | *глина* | *клей* | glue |
| *liquidate* (a company) | *ліквідувати* (ok) |  |  |
| *liquidate* (a person, euphemism) | *знищити*, *ліквідувати* (ok) |  |  |
| *cabinet* (furniture) | *шафа* | *кабінет* | office, study; cabinet of ministers |
| *mark* (school) | *оцінка*, *бал* | *марка* | stamp, brand |
| *academic* (a person) | *науковець*, *викладач* | *академік* | member of an academy |
| *specialist* | *фахівець* | *спеціаліст* (ok, also "professional") |  |
| *effective* / *efficient* | *дієвий*, *ефективний* / *ефективний*, *продуктивний* | *ефективний* | both senses: decide |

### 7.2 Anglicisms in Ukrainian: usage, not dogma

English → Ukrainian is where anglicisms enter. Each is judged by register usage and house style ([into-uk.md](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/into-uk/) §4):

| English | borrowing | native or established | verdict (neutral and official prose; slang differs) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| *implement* | *імплементувати* | *впроваджувати*, *запроваджувати*, *виконувати* | native, except the legal "implementation of an international agreement" where *імплементація* is a term |
| *challenge* | *челендж* | *виклик* | *виклик*; *челендж* only for an internet challenge (a viral game) |
| *message* | *меседж* | *повідомлення*, *думка*, *посил* | native; *меседж* is jargon of politics and PR |
| *deadline* | *дедлайн* | *кінцевий термін*, *крайній строк* | native in official prose; *дедлайн* is the normal word in offices and media |
| *feedback* | *фідбек* | *відгук*, *зворотний зв'язок* | native in writing |
| *case* | *кейс* | *випадок*, *приклад*, *справа* | native; *кейс* is a term in business teaching ("case study") |
| *location* | *локація* | *місце*, *місцевість* | native, except in film and games where *локація* is a term |
| *skill* | *скіл* | *навичка*, *уміння* | native; *скіл* is slang |
| *creative* | *креативний* | *творчий* | both live: *креативний* in advertising and design |
| *manager* | *менеджер* | (*керівник*, *управлінець*) | established |
| *volunteer* | *волонтер* | (*доброволець*) | established with its own sense; *доброволець* also "volunteer soldier" |
| *gadget* | *гаджет* |  | established |
| *weekend* | *вікенд* | *вихідні* | *вихідні* in neutral prose; *вікенд* in media and colloquial |
| *helicopter* | *гелікоптер* | *вертоліт* (older), *гвинтокрил* (purist) | current media favour *гелікоптер*; older texts *вертоліт* (into-uk §4.3) |

### 7.3 English words that look Ukrainian, and Ukrainian words in English

Ukrainian words in English are realia, usually kept with a gloss: *borscht* (*борщ*), *varenyky*, *vyshyvanka*, *hryvnia*, *hromada*, *Rada*, *Maidan*, *banduras*, *pysanky*. Spell them by the official romanisation or by established English spelling (*borscht* is established; *borshch* is the romanisation).

## 8. Register

Every non-standard voice in this pair is handled as the standard plus a **grammar delta** and a **lexicon delta** (general manual §3.7): read the source's deltas and what each is for, translate through the standard, then apply the target's own deltas that serve the same purpose at a similar density. The tables below are examples of deltas with matching functions in English and Ukrainian, not word-for-word dialect equivalents.

### 8.1 Colloquial

| English | Ukrainian |
| --- | --- |
| contractions | short forms, dropped subjects, particles |
| *kids* | *малеча*, *діти*, *дітлахи* |
| *guy* | *хлопець*, *чувак* (slang), *тип* |
| *awesome*, *cool* | *класно*, *круто*, *кайф* |
| *I dunno* | *Не знаю*, *Хтозна*, *А я знаю?* |
| *Come on!* | *Та ну!*, *Давай!*, *Годі!* |
| *You know what I mean* | *Ну ти зрозумів*, *Розумієш* |
| *No way!* | *Та ну!*, *Не може бути!*, *Нізащо!* |
| *Seriously?* | *Серйозно?*, *Та ти що?* |

### 8.2 Slang, generations and the war

Ukrainian slang of the 2020s borrows from English (*крінж*, *краш*, *вайб*, *рофл*, *лол*), from gaming and from the army. Army slang has entered general speech since 2022 (*арта*, *бавовна* "explosion", *двохсотий* "killed", *трьохсотий* "wounded", *мавік* "drone", *ЗСУ*, *побратим*). English → Ukrainian for news and official texts: neutral terms (*загиблий*, *поранений*, *вибух*); for soldiers' dialogue in fiction: the slang. Ukrainian → English: the army slang has English counterparts in military slang (*KIA*, *WIA*, *arty*, *drone*), and the general reader may need a gloss.

### 8.3 Surzhyk between English and Ukrainian

**Ukrainian → English.** A surzhyk-speaking character ([from-uk.md](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/from-uk/) §3.5) is rendered in English by non-standard but non-local colloquial English: a few non-standard grammatical forms (*we was*, *I says*), colloquial words, dropped *-g*, at a density that marks without placing the character in a known English dialect. Constructed example:

> *Ну шо, як діла? Канєшно, приїду, тіки шас не можу, ладно?* ✓ *“So, how's things? Sure I'll come, just can't right now, all right?”* ✗ *“So, 'ow's fings? Course I'll come, guv, can't right now, innit?”* (Cockney: a London character) ✗ *“So, how are things? Of course I will come, but I cannot right now, is that all right?”* (normalised: the character's voice is gone)

When the mixing itself is the point (a joke about a character who switches; a comic song persona), the English can keep a few transliterated items whose meaning is clear (*“Shcho? Normal'no!”*) or add a note; it should not substitute a mixed English of another community.

**English → Ukrainian.** Surzhyk is a candidate for a character whose English speech is non-standard and socially placed in a comparable way (a small-town character, a comic everyman, a parody of pretension), and for comic or pop songs whose persona fits; not for a narrator, a foreigner whose speech has nothing to do with Ukrainian-Russian contact, or a neutral text ([into-uk.md](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/into-uk/) §3.6). Constructed example:

> *“I ain't never been to no city, and I ain't goin' now.”* (a rural character, comic) ✓ *— Та я в тому городі зроду не був, і шас не поїду.* (colloquial Ukrainian with one surzhyk item, *шас*; *город* "city" is also a surzhyk-marked word in this sense) ✓ *— Та я в тому місті зроду не був і тепер не поїду.* (colloquial standard: right if surzhyk would mislead) ✗ *— Я ніколи не був у жодному місті, і я не їду зараз.* (normalised and calqued)

### 8.4 Official style

| English | Ukrainian |
| --- | --- |
| *Dear Sir or Madam,* | *Шановні пані та панове!* |
| *Dear Mr Smith,* | *Шановний пане Сміте!* |
| *I am writing to inform you that …* | *Повідомляю Вам, що …* |
| *Please find attached …* | *Надсилаю (в додатку) …* |
| *I look forward to hearing from you.* | *Чекаю на Вашу відповідь.* |
| *Yours faithfully / sincerely,* | *З повагою,* |
| *The Parties shall …* | *Сторони зобов'язуються …* / *Сторони …* (present) |

## 9. Idioms and proverbs

| English | Ukrainian |
| --- | --- |
| *It's raining cats and dogs.* | *Ллє як з відра.* |
| *to have other fish to fry* | *мати інші клопоти* |
| *Don't count your chickens before they're hatched.* | *Не кажи «гоп», поки не перескочиш.* |
| *to beat around the bush* | *ходити околясом*, *ходити манівцями* |
| *to kill two birds with one stone* | *убити двох зайців* |
| *when pigs fly* | *як рак свисне* |
| *to pull someone's leg* | *клеїти дурня*, *жартувати* (no single idiom) |
| *a piece of cake* | *раз плюнути* |
| *to turn down a suitor* | *дати гарбуза* (the pumpkin as refusal: realia) |
| *speak of the devil* | *про вовка промовка* |
| *Every cloud has a silver lining.* | *Немає лиха без добра.* |
| *Out of sight, out of mind.* | *З очей геть — із серця вон.* |
| *Better late than never.* | *Краще пізно, ніж ніколи.* |
| *There's no place like home.* | *У гостях добре, а вдома краще.* |

Literal renderings are the commonest machine failure on idioms in this pair; the meaning often survives, the idiom does not *(petruniv-2026-simidioms-corpus-benchmark-ukrainian-idiom)*. Transparent-looking English idioms are calqued most: *went out of his way* → *✗ вийшов зі свого шляху* *(grozea-2025)*; ✓ *доклав зусиль*, *з шкіри пнувся*.

## 10. Culture-bound items

- **School and exams**: *high school* / *старша школа*; *GCSEs*, *A-levels*, *SAT* / *НМТ*, *ЗНО* (older): keep and explain, do not equate.
- **Holidays and food**: *Thanksgiving* stays *День подяки*; *Свят-вечір* is *Holy Supper* / *Christmas Eve*; *кутя* is *kutia* (a wheat dish of Christmas Eve).
- **Institutions**: *Verkhovna Rada* (*the Rada*), *Cabinet of Ministers*, *oblast* (*region*), *raion* (*district*), *hromada* (*community*); English *county*, *borough*, *state* into Ukrainian: *графство*, *район* or *округ*, *штат*.
- **Money and measures**: *hryvnia* (*UAH*, *грн*); English imperial units are converted only by the brief.
- **History and politics**: place names in their Ukrainian forms in English (*Kyiv*, *Kharkiv*, *Odesa*, *Lviv*, *Chornobyl* or the established *Chernobyl* for the 1986 disaster by house style); avoid Russian-based forms in current texts unless quoting.

## 11. Names, numbers, dates, typography

### 11.1 Romanisation of Ukrainian (official system)

The Ukrainian official romanisation (Cabinet of Ministers resolution of 27 January 2010), which the EU style guide recommends for Ukrainian names *(commission-1982)*:

| letter | Latin | letter | Latin | letter | Latin |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| А | a | Ї | yi (initial), i | Ф | f |
| Б | b | Й | y (initial), i | Х | kh |
| В | v | К | k | Ц | ts |
| Г | h | Л | l | Ч | ch |
| Ґ | g | М | m | Ш | sh |
| Д | d | Н | n | Щ | shch |
| Е | e | О | o | Ь | (omitted) |
| Є | ye (initial), ie | П | p | Ю | yu (initial), iu |
| Ж | zh | Р | r | Я | ya (initial), ia |
| З | z (*зг* → zgh) | С | s | ' | (omitted) |
| И | y | Т | t |  |  |
| І | i | У | u |  |  |

Examples: *Олена* → *Olena*; *Юлія* → *Yuliia*; *Ярослава* → *Yaroslava*; *Згорани* → *Zghorany*; *Знам'янка* → *Znamianka*; *Святослав* → *Sviatoslav*. A person's own Latin spelling wins (the EU guide notes *Yulia*, *Yuliya*, *Yuliia* and *Iuliia* in use for one name) *(commission-1982)*.

### 11.2 English names in Ukrainian

By the 2019 orthography *(ukrainskyi-pravopys-2019, §§ 121–135)*: *w* → *в* (*Вашингтон*, *Вільсон*), traditional *у* (*Уельс*); *th* [θ] → *т* (*Артур*, *трилер*), [ð] → *з* (*Резерфорд*); *h* → *г* (*Гарвард*), traditional *х* (*хобі*, *хокей*); [æ] → *а* (*хакер*, *Чаплін*), traditional *е* (*бізнесмен*, *менеджер*); [ə:] → *ер* (*Черчилль*, *серфінг*); *g* → *г*, *ґ* allowed in personal names. Decline the names (*Шекспір* → *Шекспіра*; *Джон* → *Джона*); feminine foreign surnames ending in a consonant are not declined (*з Мері Сміт*).

### 11.3 Numbers, dates, typography

|  | English | Ukrainian |
| --- | --- | --- |
| decimal / thousands | *3.5*; *15,000* | *3,5*; *15 000* |
| billion | 10⁹ | *мільярд* (10⁹); *більйон* = 10¹² |
| date | *6 June 2026* / *June 6, 2026* | *6 червня 2026 року* |
| short date | *06/06/2026* (UK), *6/6/2026* (US: month first) | *06.06.2026* |
| time | *2.30 p.m.* | *14:30*, *о пів на третю* (colloquial: "half past two" is *пів на третю*, "half to three") |
| quotation marks | “ ” / ‘ ’ | « » / „ “ |
| dialogue | quotation marks | dash in prose |
| capitals | *Monday*, *June*, *English* | *понеділок*, *червень*, *англійська* |
| *you* in letters | *you* | *Ви* (one addressee) |

Note the clock trap: Ukrainian *пів на третю* is 2.30 (half on the way to three), like German *halb drei*, not 3.30.

## 12. Songs

**From English to Ukrainian.** English song grammar (*ain't*, double negatives, dropped subjects and auxiliaries, *me and him*, dialect spellings) is the song register; render it by Ukrainian colloquial song grammar: dropped subjects (natural in Ukrainian), short forms (*нема*, *тра*, *шо*), particles, slang, at times surzhyk for a comic or popular persona (§8.3). Ukrainian negative concord is standard, so the English double negative's non-standard mark goes elsewhere. Constructed:

| English lyric | Ukrainian song version | note |
| --- | --- | --- |
| *I ain't got no money, ain't got no home* | *Нема грошей, нема хати* | dropped subject; *нема* colloquial; the double negative's colour carried by repetition |
| *Ø Woke up this morning, Ø feeling blue* | *Прокинувся зранку — на душі сумно* | dropped subject is native |
| *Me and her, we danced all night* | *Ми з нею танцювали всю ніч* | *ми з нею* is the Ukrainian "me and her" |
| *Baby, baby, don't you cry* | *Мила, мила, не плач* / *Не плач, моя рибонько* | affectionate address by vocative and diminutive |

**From Ukrainian to English.** Folk songs keep fixed epithets (*червона калина* → *the red guelder rose*; *ясний місяць* → *the bright moon*), parallelism and vocatives (*Ой ти, дівчино* → *Oh, my girl*); keep them fixed. Diminutives become English affectionate words, not *-ie* forms. A singable English version must place English lexical stress on strong beats.

**The *Щедрик* case.** The New Year carol *Щедрик* (folk text, arranged by Mykola Leontovych; public domain) tells of a swallow promising a rich year. Its English version known worldwide, *Carol of the Bells* (Peter Wilhousky, 1936; in copyright, not quoted), keeps the tune and the four-note figure and replaces the text entirely with bells: a new lyric (general manual §9.1). A singable English translation that keeps the swallow, the master's flock and the rich year is a separate, still open task; a gloss is: *Shchedryk, shchedryk, a little shchedrivka; a swallow flew in, began to twitter, calling the master out*.

**Surzhyk and pop.** A popular Ukrainian song sung in surzhyk is translated by its voice: comic, warm, everyday colloquial English, with no attempt to correct it into standard and no foreign dialect (§8.3).

## 13. Quality checks for English–Ukrainian

**English → Ukrainian**

1. Aspect decided on every verb; tense mapped by meaning.
2. Subjects and possessives dropped where Ukrainian does not need them; *свій* for the subject's own.
3. Word order: new last; no *цей/той* for every *the*.
4. *ти/ви* decided; vocative in address; *Ви* capitalised in letters.
5. Passives restructured; no instrumental agent in neutral prose.
6. Feminitives by the text's information and the house style.
7. Anglicisms judged by usage; calqued idioms caught.
8. Particles in dialogue where a Ukrainian would use them.
9. Case government and numerals.
10. 2019 orthography, « », dash, apostrophe; romanised and Ukrainianised names consistent.

**Ukrainian → English**

1. Articles supplied.
2. Subjects supplied with the gender the verb gives.
3. Aspect → English tense and lexis; general-factual imperfective → present perfect.
4. Reported speech back-shifted.
5. Order's information kept (indefinite subject, passive, cleft, stress).
6. Particles and diminutives rendered by attitude.
7. Surzhyk and dialect handled by a stated decision.
8. Romanisation by one system; current place names.

## 14. Corpus evidence, construction by construction

Tatoeba EN–UK (pairs.tsv, 217 646 pairs, CC BY 2.0 FR; authors in each row) keeps several Ukrainian versions of many English sentences. The English sentences below were written first (lower ids). Each row is a real contributor's choice; ✗ marks a rendering we judge wrong.

### 14.1 Tense and aspect

| id | English | Ukrainian | point |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| `tatoeba:2314-6450180` | *I've been waiting for hours.* | *Я чекаю вже кілька годин.* | present perfect of a state → present + *вже* |
| `tatoeba:6560528-6616951` | *I've been waiting for you for three hours.* | *Я чекаю на тебе вже три години.* | the same, with *чекати на* + accusative |
| `tatoeba:1891174-5934566` | *I've been waiting for you a long time.* | *Я вже давно на тебе чекаю.* | *давно* + present |
| `tatoeba:245845-516026` | *When I was a child, I could sleep anywhere.* | *У дитинстві я засинав будь-де.* | habit → imperfective past; *could* absorbed into the habitual verb |
| `tatoeba:28335-407378` | *I used to play with my sister in the park.* | *Раніше я грав зі своєю сестрою в парку.* | *used to* → *раніше* + imperfective |
| `tatoeba:16199-414827` | *Have you ever been to Kyushu?* | *Ви колись були на Кюсю?* | experiential perfect → past + *колись* |
| `tatoeba:308580-492733` | *She opened the door.* | *Вона відчинила двері.* | single event → perfective |
| `tatoeba:35772-337529` | *I'll call you back later.* | *Я передзвоню тобі пізніше.* | perfective future; *back* → prefix *пере-* |
| `tatoeba:283875-506990` | *He said he would pay for the dinner.* | *Він сказав, що заплатить за обід.* | no back-shift: *would* → future |
| `tatoeba:297715-604191` | *He said he would write to me, but he hasn't.* | *Він казав, що буде мені писати, але так і не написав.* | imperfective *казав*, *буде писати* (process), then perfective *не написав* (never did) |
| `tatoeba:989164-6388023` | *I read the book.* | *Я читаю книжку.* | the homograph *read* taken as present |

### 14.2 Voice and impersonals

| id | English | Ukrainian | point |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| `tatoeba:26259-479065` | *English is spoken in many parts of the world.* | *Англійською говорять у багатьох країнах світу.* | passive → 3rd plural without subject |
| `tatoeba:26297-926376` | *English is spoken in Canada.* | *В Канаді розмовляють англійською.* | the same, with the place first (given) |
| `tatoeba:256026-492896` | *I was told that I should see a doctor.* | *Мені порадили звернутися до лікаря.* | passive → 3rd plural; *told … should* → *порадили* ("advised") |
| `tatoeba:6086294-6087194` | *I was told never to do that again.* | *Мені сказали більше ніколи цього не робити.* | negative concord *ніколи … не* |
| `tatoeba:664043-711513` | *I can't sleep at all.* | *Мені зовсім не спиться.* | dative impersonal of state |
| `tatoeba:1189413-1189433` | *I can't sleep.* | *Я не можу спати.* | the literal modal: correct, flatter |

### 14.3 Possession, copula and existence

| id | English | Ukrainian | point |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| `tatoeba:252272-5948717` | *I have a car.* | *У мене є машина.* | neutral possession |
| `tatoeba:252272-735595` | *I have a car.* | *Я маю автівку.* | *мати* + colloquial *автівка* |
| `tatoeba:587974-501100` | *He has one son and two daughters.* | *У нього син і дві доньки.* | *є* omitted |
| `tatoeba:2272789-5972578` | *Tom is a doctor.* | *Том лікар.* | zero copula |
| `tatoeba:2272789-4905342` | *Tom is a doctor.* | *Том - лікар.* | the dash between subject and noun predicate (here typed as a hyphen: typographically *Том — лікар*) |
| `tatoeba:2252663-6927688` / `-6927689` | *There's no time.* | *Часу немає.* / *Немає часу.* | genitive of negation; order sets the focus |

### 14.4 Address, politeness and greetings

| id | English | Ukrainian | point |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| `tatoeba:378270-379467` | *Do you speak English?* | *Ви знаєте англійську?* | polite *ви* |
| `tatoeba:378270-1584616` | *Do you speak English?* | *Ти говориш англійською?* | informal *ти* |
| `tatoeba:1839560-4918189` | *Thank you very much.* | *Дуже дякую.* | no pronoun |
| `tatoeba:1839560-6834109` | *Thank you very much.* | *Дуже тобі дякую.* | *ти* chosen |
| `tatoeba:373320-494157` | *How are you?* | *Як ся маєш?* | traditional (with *ся* before the verb) |
| `tatoeba:373320-723987` | *How are you?* | *Як справи?* | current neutral |

### 14.5 Gender, motion and the speaker

| id | English | Ukrainian | point |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| `tatoeba:257520-5733622` | *I just arrived now.* | *Я щойно приїхав.* | man, by vehicle |
| `tatoeba:257520-5733625` | *I just arrived now.* | *Я щойно приїхала.* | woman, by vehicle |
| `tatoeba:257520-6797414` | *I just arrived now.* | *Я щойно прилетів.* | man, by air |
| `tatoeba:3315771-918394` | *I'm going to school.* | *Я йду до школи.* | determinate motion now, on foot |
| `tatoeba:20972-505561` | *The nurse looked after the babies.* | *Медсестра доглядала за немовлятами.* | default feminine for *nurse* |
| `tatoeba:15827-492594` | *You should have told him the truth.* | *Ти повинен був сказати йому правду.* | masculine *you* chosen |

### 14.6 Body parts, possessives, order

| id | English | Ukrainian | point |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| `tatoeba:2439719-384384` | *He put his hand on my shoulder.* | *Він поклав руку мені не плече.* | possessive dropped; *my* → dative *мені*; the corpus row has a typo (*не* for *на*) |
| `tatoeba:838692-337535` | *He put his hand gently on her shoulder.* | *Він ніжно поклав руку на її плече.* | possessive *її* kept where the owner differs from the subject |
| `tatoeba:292724-651746` | *He put his hands in his pockets.* | *Він поклав руки собі у кишені.* | dative reflexive *собі* for the subject's own body |
| `tatoeba:1043835-414829` | *She lost her money, her family and her friends.* | *Вона загубила гроші, сім'ю, друзів.* | three possessives dropped; the verb *загубила* ("mislaid") is odd for family: *втратила* fits all three |
| `tatoeba:27625-1565865` | *A man came up to me and asked for a match.* | *Чоловік підійшов до мене і попросив сірник.* | English order kept; *До мене підійшов чоловік …* would mark the new subject |

### 14.7 Idioms

| id | English | Ukrainian |
| --- | --- | --- |
| `tatoeba:338383-5798775` | *It's raining cats and dogs tonight.* | *Сьогодні ввечері ллє як з відра.* |
| `tatoeba:384559-3277958` | *It's raining cats and dogs.* | *Ллє як з ринви.* ("pours as from a gutter") |
| `tatoeba:8053707-8053699` | *Tom has had his chips.* | *Томова пісенька проспівана.* |

## 15. The Bible in two traditions

The WEB and KJV against the Kulish/Puluj Bible of 1905 (`en-uk/bible/`, public domain) are not translations of each other, but they show how English and Ukrainian traditions render the same text, and they give the Ukrainian archaic delta (general manual §13.3):

| verse | English (WEB unless KJV) | Kulish/Puluj 1905 | note |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| `GEN_1:3` | *God said, “Let there be light,” and there was light.* | *І рече Бог: Настань, сьвіте! І настав сьвіт.* | *let there be* → imperative to the light; *рече*; *сьвіт* |
| `EXO_20:13` (KJV) | *Thou shalt not kill.* | *Не вбивати меш.* | *shalt not* → synthetic future |
| `PSA_23:1` (KJV) | *The LORD is my shepherd; I shall not want.* | *Господь пастирь мій, не мати му недостатку.* | *the LORD* → *Господь*; *want* ("lack") → *недостаток* |
| `PSA_23:4` | *Even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil, for you are with me.* | *Хоч би я ходив по долинї тїни смертної, то не боюся жадного лиха, ти бо єси зо мною* | concessive *хоч би*; postposed *бо*; *єси* |
| `MAT_5:3` | *Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the Kingdom of Heaven.* | *Блаженні вбогі духом, бо їх царство небесне.* | zero copula; *їх* for *theirs* |
| `MAT_6:9` | *Our Father in heaven, may your name be kept holy.* (WEB) | *Отче наш, що на небі! Нехай святить ся імя твоє.* | vocative *Отче*; *нехай* + present for a wish |
| `MAT_6:11` | *Give us today our daily bread.* | *Хлїб наш щоденний дай нам сьогоднї.* | object first, possessive after the noun (liturgical order) |
| `LUK_2:10` | *Don't be afraid, for behold, I bring you good news of great joy …* | *Не бійтесь, ось бо благовіщу вам радість велику …* | *behold* → *ось*; *good news* → the verb *благовіщу* |
| `1CO_13:4` | *Love is patient and is kind. Love doesn't envy. Love doesn't brag, is not proud,* | *Любов довго терпить, милосердує; любов не завидує; любов не величаєть ся, не надимаєть ся,* | English adjectives (*patient*, *kind*, *proud*) → Ukrainian verbs: the verbal preference of §2.4 of [into-uk.md](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/into-uk/) |
| `PRO_15:1` | *A gentle answer turns away wrath, but a harsh word stirs up anger.* | *Відказ лагідний гнїв палкий гасить, а зневажливе слово розбуджує лютість.* | adjectives after nouns, verb last: proverbial inversion |
| `ECC_1:2` | *“Vanity of vanities,” says the Preacher; “Vanity of vanities, all is vanity.”* | *Марна марнота! говорить речник; марнота над марнотами, — все марне!* | the Hebrew superlative rendered two ways in one verse |

The verse of the Psalm shows the decision of [into-uk.md](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/into-uk/) §2.1 at work in 1905: *I walk* (English present) → *ходив* (past imperfective, hypothetical with *хоч би*), *I will fear no evil* → *не боюся* (present), a different time frame chosen for the Ukrainian concessive.

## 16. Terminology by domain

### 16.1 IT and software

| English | Ukrainian | note |
| --- | --- | --- |
| *file*, *folder*, *window*, *menu* | *файл*, *тека* / *папка*, *вікно*, *меню* | *тека* is the careful native word, *папка* the common one |
| *download* / *upload* | *завантажити* / *вивантажити*, *завантажити на* | *завантажити* is used for both directions; context or *на сервер* disambiguates |
| *app* | *застосунок* | replaced *додаток* in careful use |
| *settings* | *налаштування* |  |
| *save*, *cancel*, *delete* | *зберегти*, *скасувати*, *видалити* | infinitives on buttons |
| *sign in*, *log out* | *увійти*, *вийти* |  |
| *email* | *електронна пошта*, *ел. пошта*, *імейл* (colloquial) |  |
| *hashtag* | *хештег* / *гештег* | 2019 orthography's *h* → *г* rule gives *гештег*; usage decides (the Ukrainian Wikipedia has *хештег* 443 against *гештег* 42: [into-uk.md](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/into-uk/) §11) |
| *browser* | *браузер* (*переглядач*, purist) |  |
| *update* | *оновлення* |  |

### 16.2 Law and administration

| English | Ukrainian | note |
| --- | --- | --- |
| *Act*, *law* | *закон* |  |
| *Code* | *кодекс* |  |
| *resolution* (of the Rada, the Cabinet) | *постанова* |  |
| *decree* (of the President) | *указ* |  |
| *order* (of a ministry) | *наказ* |  |
| *ruling*, *judgment* | *рішення* (court), *постанова* (some courts) |  |
| *legal entity* | *юридична особа* |  |
| *individual* (natural person) | *фізична особа* |  |
| *limitation period* | *позовна давність* |  |
| *notary* | *нотаріус* | civil-law notary |
| *shall* (obligation) | present indicative, *зобов'язаний*, *має* |  |
| *enter into force* | *набирати чинності* | not *✗ вступати в силу* (a russianism) |
| *Member State* (EU) | *держава-член* |  |

### 16.3 Medicine

| English | Ukrainian |
| --- | --- |
| *GP*, *family doctor* | *сімейний лікар* |
| *prescription* | *рецепт* |
| *package leaflet* | *інструкція для медичного застосування* |
| *side effects* | *побічні реакції* / *побічні ефекти* |
| *contraindications* | *протипоказання* |
| *dosage* | *дозування* |
| *blood pressure* | *артеріальний тиск* (*АТ*) |
| *stroke* | *інсульт* |
| *heart attack* / *myocardial infarction* | *серцевий напад* (lay) / *інфаркт міокарда* |
| *common cold*, *upper respiratory infection* | *застуда*, *ГРВІ* |

### 16.4 Military and war reporting

| English | Ukrainian (neutral) | Ukrainian (soldiers' speech) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| *killed in action* | *загиблий* | *двохсотий* |
| *wounded* | *поранений* | *трьохсотий* |
| *artillery* | *артилерія* | *арта* |
| *explosion* (in occupied territory) | *вибух* | *бавовна* (ironic) |
| *drone* | *безпілотник*, *дрон* | *пташка*, the model name (*мавік*) |
| *air-raid alert* | *повітряна тривога* |  |
| *shelter* | *укриття* |  |
| *comrade-in-arms* | *побратим* / *посестра* |  |

## 18. How Mova handles it

**Today.** Nothing in this pair is implemented. Mova reads English and has no Ukrainian parser, lexicon, morphology or encoder,; the English–Ukrainian corpora of §0 are its first parallel data. [tools/translate](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/tools/translate/) translates English editions into each other and Hebrew into English; its Hebrew reader is the closest analogue to what a Ukrainian reader would need, since it reads a morphologically rich, article-less language from treebank features (lemma, part of speech, person, number, gender) into the meta-world and, with its grammar plan, adds the English articles, *of* and possessives that the source expresses by structure (`hebrew::grammar_plan`). A Ukrainian reader would add articles from word order and discourse, subjects from verb endings, and English tenses from aspect.

**Planned and being built.**

- **The Ukrainian Nightingale** 🐦 (tools/nightingale, being built; one per language, under the Eel, with its own Sol consultant, building a naturalness model from the Ukrainian Wikipedia on the CPU) would measure the Ukrainian target: anglicism against native frequencies (§7.2) by domain and period, pronoun and possessive density, verbal-noun chains, order. **The English Nightingale** would do the same for English targets (article omissions, Ukrainian order).
- **The Eel's rounds** `tr-en-uk` and `tr-uk-en` (being built) would start from the Tatoeba and Bible pairs of §0; larger corpora (OPUS subsets) need their licences checked one by one.

**Where Mova stops.** Everything above is guidance for translators and the specification of a future reader and encoder.

## Sources

*(ukrainskyi-pravopys-2019)* (§§ 32.4, 121–146, 164); *(smerechynskyi-1932)* (the passive and the *-но/-то* form); *(commission-1982)* (romanisation of Ukrainian); *(maksymenko-2023-controllability-english-ukrainian-machine-translation)*, *(chaplynskyi-2026-professional-translators-versus-quality-estimation)*, *(petruniv-2026-simidioms-corpus-benchmark-ukrainian-idiom)*, *(grozea-2025)*, *(lassen-2022-ukrainian-english-folktale-corpus-parallel)* (corpus resources and errors); the surzhyk studies cited in [from-uk.md](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/from-uk/). *Щедрик*: folk text and Leontovych's arrangement, public domain; *Carol of the Bells* named, not quoted. The Ukrainian romanisation table: Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine resolution No. 55 of 27 January 2010 (an official document).

*The Elamur team*

- [← previous English and French: the pair manual](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/pairs/en-fr/)
- [next → French and Ukrainian: the pair manual](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/pairs/fr-uk/)
- [↑ back to languages/translation/pairs/](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/translation/pairs/)