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# Neural Arabic Text Diacritization: State of the Art Results and a Novel Approach for Machine Translation

**Authors:** Ali Fadel; Ibraheem Tuffaha; Bara' Al-Jawarneh; Mahmoud Al-Ayyoub · **Year:** 2019 · **Venue:** Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Asian Translation **Link:** [aclanthology.org/D19-5229](https://aclanthology.org/D19-5229/) · library `aclbulk-2019-fadel-neural-arabic-text-diacritization-state` · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) (ACL Anthology)

[**14** citations](https://openalex.org/works?filter=cites:W2984342083) openalex-snapshot · 2026-10-14[**18** citations in our library](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/cited-by/aclbulk-2019-fadel-neural-arabic-text-diacritization-state/) of the 140673 papers whose bibliographies we read[Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Asian Translation](https://aclanthology.org/volumes/D19-5/)[licence](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

- [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/D19-5229/)
- [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/D19-5229.pdf)
- [DOI 10.18653/v1/d19-5229](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/d19-5229)
- [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2984342083)

**Authors (4)**

1. Ali Fadel [Semantic Scholar](https://www.semanticscholar.org/author/145398706)
2. Ibraheem Tuffaha [Semantic Scholar](https://www.semanticscholar.org/author/118482523)
3. Bara' Al-Jawarneh
4. Mahmoud Al-Ayyoub

Citations and author metrics from openalex-snapshot (2026-10-14); authors with the same name are not always told apart.

## What it is about

The paper predicts the diacritics (short vowels and gemination marks) of Arabic text character by character. It works on a cleaned version of the Tashkeela corpus, with about 2.3 million words, and it introduces diacritic error rate (DER) and word error rate (WER) definitions that ignore unmarked characters and, optionally, the case ending. Two families are tried. A feed-forward model sees a window of 50 unpointed characters on each side; its embedding variant reaches 4.06% DER (9.38% WER with case ending excluded) against 13.78% DER for the rule-based Mishkal system. A recurrent model (two BiLSTM layers, 512 units, with a block-normalized gradient) reaches 1.34% DER and 2.91% WER when trained with an extra set of classical texts and the Quran; a CRF output layer cut the word error rate further in the no-extra-data setting. Prediction is over 15 classes: no mark, the single marks, and the shadda compounds. The last character is the hardest, because its vowel depends on the part of speech.

## Ideas

- I1. Adopt the DER/WER definitions as the scoring rule for any pointing or vocalization output of `tools/hbo`, reporting both with and without the final letter, so Hebrew numbers can be compared with Arabic ones.
- I2. A character-window classifier as a cheap baseline for Hebrew niqqud: 50 characters each side is more than Hebrew needs, so run a window of 5 to 10 consonants, with the ±1 consonant context and the dagesh and shin-dot classes as the label set, and check it against the pointed MACULA text.
- I3. The final-letter result as a rule: the vowel of a word-final letter depends on its part of speech, so a pointing model for unpointed Hebrew should take the parser's POS (from `gparse`) as an input for the last consonant only; the paper's CRF-versus-softmax result says to test this on the held-out words rather than assume it.

## For Mova

I1 is a measure for `tools/hbo` (the unpointed mode) and for [1. Script and pointing](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/hbo/01-script/) and [2. Cantillation: the accents (te'amim)](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/hbo/02-cantillation/), where the pointing rules are described. I2 is a baseline to build in `tools/hbo` before any neural pointing, with a held-out check on MACULA. I3 belongs to [The Noun, the Adjective and the Numeral](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/hbo/04-noun/) (the final vowel depends on the noun class) and to `tools/hbo` as an input to the pointer. The Translation over Diacritization idea is not for Mova: it depends on a neural translation model.

Topics: [Machine translation](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/topics/machine-translation/)

## Cite

The paper itself, not this card. BibTeX from the library's record of the work. [DOI 10.18653/v1/d19-5229](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/d19-5229)

```
@inproceedings{fadel2019neural,
  title = {{Neural Arabic Text Diacritization: State of the Art Results and a Novel Approach for Machine Translation}},
  author = {Fadel, Ali and Tuffaha, Ibraheem and Al-Jawarneh, Bara' and Al-Ayyoub, Mahmoud},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Asian Translation},
  year = {2019},
  doi = {10.18653/v1/d19-5229},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/d19-5229}
}
```

- [← previous Morphologically Annotated Corpora for Seven Arabic Dialects: Taizi, Sanaani, Najdi, Jordanian, Syrian, Iraqi and Moroccan](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/aclbulk-2019-alshargi-morphologically-annotated-corpora-seven-arabic/)
- [next → Controlled Semi-automatic Annotation of Classical Ethiopic](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/aclbulk-2019-vertan-controlled-semi-automatic-annotation-classical/)
- [↑ back to Semitic languages](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/sem/)

## References

26 references, 4 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet.

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