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# Plans, Inference, and Indirect Speech Acts

**Authors:** James F. Allen, C. Raymond Perrault · **Year:** 1979 · **Venue:** 17th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics **Link:** [aclanthology.org/P79-1021](https://aclanthology.org/P79-1021/) · **Licence:** [CC BY-NC-SA 3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/) (ACL Anthology, before 2016) — summary only

[**5** citations](https://openalex.org/works?filter=cites:W2150437650) openalex · 2026-10-19[**1** citations in our library](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/cited-by/allen-1979-plans-inference-indirect-speech-acts/) of the 140673 papers whose bibliographies we read[17th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics](https://aclanthology.org/volumes/P79-1/)[licence](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/)

- [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/P79-1021/)
- [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/P79-1021.pdf)
- [DOI 10.3115/982163.982187](https://doi.org/10.3115/982163.982187)
- [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2150437650)

**Authors (1)**

1. [Allen, James F.](https://openalex.org/A5090002679) [ORCID](https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4543-5457) · [Semantic Scholar](https://www.semanticscholar.org/author/145844737) · h 56 · 24315 citations · 332 works

Citations and author metrics from openalex (2026-10-19); authors with the same name are not always told apart.

## What it is about

The classic plan-based account of speech acts. A speech act is an operator in a planning system, with preconditions and effects on the speaker's beliefs and goals. A hearer recognises an utterance by building the plan that could have produced it: rules link surface acts to intentions, and "augmented" rules add the condition that the hearer believes the speaker meant them to be recognised. For the request "Do you know when the Windsor train leaves?", the literal plan (a yes/no question) and the indirect one (a request for the time) are both deducible. Plausibility heuristics pick between them: one heuristic lowers the plausibility of a plan in which the agent is believed to be achieving an effect that is already believed true. The model was run as a program playing a train-station clerk. The paper gives no measurements; the argument is by example.

## Ideas

- I1. `prag/src/infer.rs`: score each reading of an indirect question by whether its effect is already in the world. If "the train leaves at 3:15" is already known, down-weight the request reading, with the reason in the output.
- I2. Keep both readings when the scores are close, and output the one that yields an obligation (the clerk must give a reason for not answering), as the paper does. Test on a few written dialogues.
- I3. Write the plausibility rules as a small table in `prag/src/infer.rs` with one line of text per rule, so each judgment can be traced to one rule.

## For Mova

The chapter is [31. Speech acts](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/en/31-speech-acts/) (indirect speech acts) and [32. Politeness and hedging](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/en/32-politeness-and-hedging/) (indirect requests). The code is `prag/src/infer.rs` (rule scores) and `prag/src/roles.rs` (who wants what). Measure: the chosen reading on ten written indirect questions, where the world either does or does not already hold the effect; run twice. The paper has no numbers, so the test set is new.

Topics: [Speech act theory](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/topics/speech-act-theory/)

## Cite

The paper itself, not this card. BibTeX from the library's record of the work. [DOI 10.3115/982163.982187](https://doi.org/10.3115/982163.982187)

```
@inproceedings{allen1979plans,
  title = {{Plans, Inference, and Indirect Speech Acts}},
  author = {Allen, James F.},
  booktitle = {17th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics},
  year = {1979},
  doi = {10.3115/982163.982187},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.3115/982163.982187}
}
```

- [← previous Speech Act Patterns for Improving Generalizability of Explainable Politeness Detection Models](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/aljanaideh-2025-speech-act-patterns-improving-generalizability/)
- [next → The acquisition of English irregular inflections by Yemeni L1 Arabic learners: A Universal Grammar approach](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/alsawsh-2026-acquisition-english-irregular-inflections-yemeni/)
- [↑ back to English](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/en/)

## References

12 references, 1 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet.

1. Allen, J.F. A Plan-Based Approach t o Speech Ac_tt Recognition. Ph.D. thesis, Computer Science Department, U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o , 1979. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Allen%2C+J%2EF%2E+A+Plan%2DBased+Approach+t+o+Speech+Ac%5Ftt+Recognition%2E+Ph%2ED%2E+thesis%2C+Computer+Science+Department%2C+U+n+i+v+e+r+s+i+t+y+o+f+T+o+r+o+n+t+o+%2C+1979%2E)
2. Austin, J.L. How To Do Thln~s With Words. New York, Oxford University Press, 1962. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Austin%2C+J%2EL%2E+How+To+Do+Thln%7Es+With+Words%2E+New+York%2C+Oxford+University+Press%2C+1962%2E)
3. Brown, G.P. An Approach t o Processing D i a l o g u e , unpublished ms, MIT, 1978. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Brown%2C+G%2EP%2E+An+Approach+t+o+Processing+D+i+a+l+o+g+u+e+%2C+unpublished+ms%2C+MIT%2C+1978%2E)
4. Task-Oriented Cohen, P.R. On Znowin 6 What t o Say: Plannin~ Speech Acts, TR 118, Computer Science Department, U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o , January 1978. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Task%2DOriented+Cohen%2C+P%2ER%2E+On+Znowin+6+What+t+o+Say%3A+Plannin%7E+Speech+Acts%2C+TR+118%2C+Computer+Science+Department%2C+U+n+i+v+e+r+s+i+t+y+o+f+T+o+r+o+n+t+o+%2C+January+1978%2E)
5. Cohen, P.R. and P e r r a u l t , C.N. Elements of a Plan Based Theory of Speech Acts, forthcoming. Cole, P. and Morgan, J . L . Syntax and Semantics, Vol 3: Speech Acts. New York, Academic Press, 1975. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Cohen%2C+P%2ER%2E+and+P+e+r+r+a+u+l+t+%2C+C%2EN%2E+Elements+of+a+Plan+Based+Theory+of+Speech+Acts%2C+forthcoming%2E+Cole%2C+P%2E+and+Morgan%2C+J+%2E+L+%2E+Syntax+and+Semantics%2C+Vol+3%3A+Speech+Acts%2E+New+York%2C+Academic+Press%2C+197)
6. F l k e s , R.E. and N l l s s o n , N.J. STRIPS: A New Approach t o the A p p l i c a t i o n o f Theorem Proving t o Problem Solving. Artificial I n t e l l i e n c e 2, 189-205, 1971. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=F+l+k+e+s+%2C+R%2EE%2E+and+N+l+l+s+s+o+n+%2C+N%2EJ%2E+STRIPS%3A+A+New+Approach+t+o+the+A+p+p+l+i+c+a+t+i+o+n+o+f+Theorem+Proving+t+o+Problem+Solving%2E+Artificial+I+n+t+e+l+l+i+e+n+c+e+2%2C+189%2D205%2C+1971%2E)
7. Gordon, D. and L a k o f f , G. Conversational in Cole and Morgan ( a d s ) , 1975. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Gordon%2C+D%2E+and+L+a+k+o+f+f+%2C+G%2E+Conversational+in+Cole+and+Morgan+%28+a+d+s+%29+%2C+1975%2E)
8. Postulates, G r i c e , H.H. Meaning. Phil. Rev. 66, 377-388, 1957. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Postulates%2C+G+r+i+c+e+%2C+H%2EH%2E+Meaning%2E+Phil%2E+Rev%2E+66%2C+377%2D388%2C+1957%2E)
9. Kachru e t al. B.B. (ads), Issues of Illinois Urbana, University Morgan, J.L. Towards a R a t i o n a l Model of Discourse Comprehension, in Proceedin~s __2nd Conf. T h e o r e t i c a l Issues in N a t u r a l Language Procesain 6, Champaign-Urbana, 1978. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Kachru+e+t+al%2E+B%2EB%2E+%28ads%29%2C+Issues+of+Illinois+Urbana%2C+University+Morgan%2C+J%2EL%2E+Towards+a+R+a+t+i+o+n+a+l+Model+of+Discourse+Comprehension%2C+in+Proceedin%7Es+%5F%5F2nd+Conf%2E+T+h+e+o+r+e+t+i+c+a+l+Issues+in+N+a)
10. P e r r a u l t , C.R. and A l l e n , J.F. A'Plan-Based o f I n d i r e c t Speech Acts, in p r e p a r a t i o n . Analysis Searle, Cambridge J.R. Speech Acts. 1969. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=P+e+r+r+a+u+l+t+%2C+C%2ER%2E+and+A+l+l+e+n+%2C+J%2EF%2E+A%27Plan%2DBased+o+f+I+n+d+i+r+e+c+t+Speech+Acts%2C+in+p+r+e+p+a+r+a+t+i+o+n+%2E+Analysis+Searle%2C+Cambridge+J%2ER%2E+Speech+Acts%2E+1969%2E) [our card](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/searle-1969-speech-acts/)
11. New York, University Press, S e a r l e , J.R. Indirect ( e d a ) , 1975. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=New+York%2C+University+Press%2C+S+e+a+r+l+e+%2C+J%2ER%2E+Indirect+%28+e+d+a+%29+%2C+1975%2E)
12. Speech Acts, in Cole Morgan and Intention and Convention in Speech A c t s . Strawson, P.F. Rev. Phil. 73, q, q39-~60, 196~. Walker, D.E. Understandin~ Spoken Language. North H o l l a n d , 1978. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Speech+Acts%2C+in+Cole+Morgan+and+Intention+and+Convention+in+Speech+A+c+t+s+%2E+Strawson%2C+P%2EF%2E+Rev%2E+Phil%2E+73%2C+q%2C+q39%2D%7E60%2C+196%7E%2E+Walker%2C+D%2EE%2E+Understandin%7E+Spoken+Language%2E+North+H+o+l+l+a+n+d+%2C+1978%2E)