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# On Grammaticality in the Syntactic Annotation of Learner Language

**Authors:** [Markus Dickinson](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/authors/markus-dickinson/), Marwa Ragheb · **Year:** 2015 · **Venue:** Proceedings of the 9th Linguistic Annotation Workshop (LAW IX) **Link:** [aclanthology.org/W15-1619](https://aclanthology.org/W15-1619/) (ACL Anthology W15-1619; DOI [10.3115/v1/W15-1619](https://doi.org/10.3115/v1/W15-1619)) **License of the paper:** [CC BY-NC-SA 3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/) — [creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/)

[**5** citations](https://openalex.org/works?filter=cites:W2251060459) openalex · 2026-10-19[**3** citations in our library](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/cited-by/dickinson-2015-grammaticality-syntactic-annotation-learner-language/) of the 140673 papers whose bibliographies we read[Proceedings of the 9th Linguistic Annotation Workshop](https://aclanthology.org/volumes/W15-16/)[licence](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/)

- [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/W15-1619/)
- [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/W15-1619.pdf)
- [DOI 10.3115/v1/w15-1619](https://doi.org/10.3115/v1/w15-1619)
- [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2251060459)

**Authors (2)**

1. [Markus Dickinson](https://openalex.org/A5063365523) [Semantic Scholar](https://www.semanticscholar.org/author/144503727) · h 14 · 819 citations · 103 works
2. [Marwa Ragheb](https://openalex.org/A5048117808) [ORCID](https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1417-061X) · [Semantic Scholar](https://www.semanticscholar.org/author/38945390) · h 5 · 108 citations · 15 works

Citations and author metrics from openalex (2026-10-19); authors with the same name are not always told apart.

## Summary

The paper asks whether an annotator of dependency syntax in second-language (learner) texts can avoid judging grammaticality at all. It works within the SALLE scheme, which annotates English learner essays in several layers (for example, separate morphological and distributional evidence for the same word) and aims to record linguistic evidence rather than errors. The authors focus on "non-canonical" categories that license missing material: ellipsis with absent heads, and enumeration (coordination without a conjunction). Through worked examples they show that choosing between an ellipsis analysis, a coordination analysis, or some other tree quietly depends on whether the annotator considers the sentence well-formed, and so does any procedure that picks one tree out of several candidates. The paper is theoretical, with no experiments. It lays out three possible annotation strategies and discusses how each affects annotation practice and the "comparative fallacy" known from second-language acquisition research. The practical message is that the grammatical assumptions behind a learner-corpus annotation scheme must be written down explicitly.

## How Mova uses it

- [Text with errors is annotated literally](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/en/seeds/errors/literal-annotation-learner/): background for the seed "text with errors is annotated literally". It states as a policy point that the choice between ellipsis, coordination and enumeration depends on the annotator's grammaticality judgement and that this assumption must be explicit.
- [Gapping: orphan links the remnants of an omitted predicate](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/en/seeds/errors/gapping-orphan/): cited for the caveat that in learner text, whether a gap is analysed as ellipsis (`orphan`) or asyndetic coordination depends on that judgement. The seed's rule `en.errors.orphan-head` checks that an `orphan` hangs from a promoted remnant (conj/root/advcl/parataxis).
- [A missing copula: "He very happy"](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/en/seeds/errors/missing-copula/): cited for absent heads and ellipsis in learner text. It motivates the warning rule `en.errors.missing-copula`, which flags a nominal or adjectival predicate with a subject but no copula ("He very happy"), with an exception for telegraphic review style.

## Effectiveness in Mova

Background reading behind wording and caveats in three error-detection seeds. It is not the source of any rule logic and was not measured separately. For reference, the seeds report how often their rules fire on the gold treebanks (for example `en.errors.missing-copula`: EWT 2.18, 3727 checks / 44 hits, mostly telegraphic reviews and a dropped "is"), but those counts describe the rules, not this paper's contribution.

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👨‍🔬💥

## Cite

The paper itself, not this card. BibTeX from the library's record of the work. [DOI 10.3115/v1/w15-1619](https://doi.org/10.3115/v1/w15-1619)

```
@inproceedings{dickinson2015grammaticality,
  title = {{On Grammaticality in the Syntactic Annotation of Learner Language}},
  author = {Dickinson, Markus and Ragheb, Marwa},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 9th Linguistic Annotation Workshop},
  year = {2015},
  doi = {10.3115/v1/w15-1619},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.3115/v1/w15-1619}
}
```

- [← previous Correcting Dependency Annotation Errors](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/dickinson-2009-correcting-dependency-annotation-errors/)
- [next → Identifying and Handling Cross-Treebank Inconsistencies in UD: A Pilot Study](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/donicke-2020-identifying-handling-cross-treebank-inconsistencies/)
- [↑ back to papers](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/)

## References

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