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# I don't believe in word senses

**Authors:** [Adam Kilgarriff](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/authors/adam-kilgarriff/) · **Year:** 1997 · **Venue:** arXiv preprint cmp-lg/9712006 (1997) **Link:** [arxiv.org/abs/cmp-lg/9712006](https://arxiv.org/abs/cmp-lg/9712006) · **Licence:** arXiv non-exclusive licence — summary only

[**396** citations](https://openalex.org/works?filter=cites:W1731542712) openalex · 2026-10-18[**100** citations in our library](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/cited-by/lex-1997-kilgarriff-word-senses/) of the 140673 papers whose bibliographies we read[Computers and the Humanities 31(2), 1997 (препринт ITRI-97-12)](https://openalex.org/S93469583)[licence](https://arxiv.org/licenses/nonexclusive-distrib/1.0/license.html)

- [Publisher's page](https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1000583911091)
- [PDF](https://arxiv.org/pdf/cmp-lg/9712006v1)
- [DOI 10.1023/a:1000583911091](https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1000583911091)
- [arXiv cmp-lg/9712006](https://arxiv.org/abs/cmp-lg/9712006)
- [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W1731542712)

**Authors (1)**

1. [Adam Kilgarriff](https://openalex.org/A5064159344) h 45 · 21455 citations · 217 works

Citations and author metrics from openalex (2026-10-18); authors with the same name are not always told apart.

## What it is about

The paper argues that word senses are not given facts that a word-sense disambiguation (WSD) system can look up. Senses are abstractions over clusters of corpus citations, and the clustering depends on the purpose of the work, so senses exist only relative to a task. The worked example is "handbag". In the British National Corpus it occurs 609 times, with 103 plural uses, 1 "handbagging" and 2 "handbagged", and about 97% of the citations are the plain base sense. The rarer uses, such as a music genre, a weapon and the phrase "dance round your handbag" that occurs just twice, are left out of dictionaries because of frequency and space. The paper concludes that a fixed list of senses from one dictionary is a weak basis for WSD evaluation.

## Ideas

- I1. `onto/src/wsd.rs`: build a second sense inventory for the content words of the school silver corpus, by clustering the context vectors of each word's citations, and compare the WSD accuracy with the OEWN inventory on the same tokens. The measure is the accuracy on a hand-checked sample of 100 tokens per word, with the cluster count stated.
- I2. Citation count per sense: count how many OEWN senses of EWT test words have no citation in the corpus, and drop them from `onto` as the default choice. Report the change in WSD accuracy on EWT with two identical runs.
- I3. Partly compositional phrases: list the multi-word units that the paper calls partly compositional (a verb with a fixed object or preposition) in `prag` expressions, and keep them out of the sense list, so they are read as expressions. Measure the number of such units on EWT test.

## For Mova

The code is `onto/src/wsd.rs` for senses and `prag` for expressions, with `en` for the citations from the school silver corpus. The chapters are [19. The lexicon: vocabulary, multiword expressions and register](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/languages/en/19-lexicon-mwe-register/) and `37-register-and-variation.md`. The paper's examples come from the BNC, which is for tests and comparison only, never for the build. Measure first: WSD accuracy on the hand-checked sample, with the paper's per-task point made explicit in the report.

Topics: [Word sense disambiguation](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/topics/word-sense-disambiguation/)

## Cite

The paper itself, not this card. BibTeX from the library's record of the work. [DOI 10.1023/a:1000583911091](https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1000583911091) · [arXiv cmp-lg/9712006](https://arxiv.org/abs/cmp-lg/9712006)

```
@inproceedings{kilgarriff1997i,
  title = {{I don't believe in word senses}},
  author = {Kilgarriff, Adam},
  booktitle = {Computers and the Humanities 31(2), 1997 (препринт ITRI-97-12)},
  year = {1997},
  doi = {10.1023/a:1000583911091},
  eprint = {cmp-lg/9712006},
  archivePrefix = {arXiv},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1000583911091}
}
```

- [← previous WordNet: A Lexical Database for English](https://md.mova.elamur.ai/free/en/docs/papers/lex-1994-miller-wordnet/)
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